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Caroppo E, Skinner MK. Could the sperm epigenome become a diagnostic tool for evaluation of the infertile man? Hum Reprod 2024; 39:478-485. [PMID: 38148019 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dead266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Although male infertility is currently diagnosed when abnormal sperm parameters are found, the poor predictive ability of sperm parameters on natural fecundity and medically assisted reproduction outcome poses the need for improved diagnostic techniques for male infertility. The accumulating evidence about the role played by the sperm epigenome in modulation of the early phases of embryonic development has led researchers to focus on the epigenetic mechanisms within the sperm epigenome to find new molecular markers of male infertility. Indeed, sperm epigenome abnormalities could explain some cases of unexplained male infertility in men showing normal sperm parameters and were found to be associated with poor embryo development in IVF cycles. The present mini-review summarizes the current knowledge about this interesting topic, starting from a description of the epigenetic mechanisms of gene expression regulation (i.e. DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs' activity). We also discuss possible mechanisms by which environmental factors might cause epigenetic changes in the human germline and affect embryonic development, as well as subsequent generations' phenotypes. Studies demonstrating sperm epigenome abnormalities in men with male infertility are reviewed, with particular emphasis on those with the more severe form of spermatogenic dysfunction. Observations demonstrate that the diagnostic and prognostic efficacy of sperm epigenome evaluation will help facilitate the management of men with male factor infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael K Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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Sengupta P, Dutta S, Liew FF, Dhawan V, Das B, Mottola F, Slama P, Rocco L, Roychoudhury S. Environmental and Genetic Traffic in the Journey from Sperm to Offspring. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1759. [PMID: 38136630 PMCID: PMC10741607 DOI: 10.3390/biom13121759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in the understanding of how sperm develop into offspring have shown complex interactions between environmental influences and genetic factors. The past decade, marked by a research surge, has not only highlighted the profound impact of paternal contributions on fertility and reproductive outcomes but also revolutionized our comprehension by unveiling how parental factors sculpt traits in successive generations through mechanisms that extend beyond traditional inheritance patterns. Studies have shown that offspring are more susceptible to environmental factors, especially during critical phases of growth. While these factors are broadly detrimental to health, their effects are especially acute during these periods. Moving beyond the immutable nature of the genome, the epigenetic profile of cells emerges as a dynamic architecture. This flexibility renders it susceptible to environmental disruptions. The primary objective of this review is to shed light on the diverse processes through which environmental agents affect male reproductive capacity. Additionally, it explores the consequences of paternal environmental interactions, demonstrating how interactions can reverberate in the offspring. It encompasses direct genetic changes as well as a broad spectrum of epigenetic adaptations. By consolidating current empirically supported research, it offers an exhaustive perspective on the interwoven trajectories of the environment, genetics, and epigenetics in the elaborate transition from sperm to offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallav Sengupta
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman 4184, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sulagna Dutta
- School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Dubai 345050, United Arab Emirates
| | - Fong Fong Liew
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, MAHSA University, Jenjarom 42610, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Vidhu Dhawan
- Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi 110029, India
| | - Biprojit Das
- Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar 788011, India
| | - Filomena Mottola
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Petr Slama
- Laboratory of Animal Immunology and Biotechnology, Department of Animal Morphology, Physiology and Genetics, Faculty of AgriSciences, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lucia Rocco
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy
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Crisóstomo L, Oliveira PF, Alves MG. A systematic scientometric review of paternal inheritance of acquired metabolic traits. BMC Biol 2023; 21:255. [PMID: 37953286 PMCID: PMC10641967 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01744-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The concept of the inheritance of acquired traits, a foundational principle of Lamarck's evolutionary theory, has garnered renewed attention in recent years. Evidence for this phenomenon remained limited for decades but gained prominence with the Överkalix cohort study in 2002. This study revealed a link between cardiovascular disease incidence and the food availability experienced by individuals' grandparents during their slow growth periods, reigniting interest in the inheritance of acquired traits, particularly in the context of non-communicable diseases. This scientometric analysis and systematic review comprehensively explores the current landscape of paternally transmitted acquired metabolic traits. RESULTS Utilizing Scopus Advanced search and meticulous screening, we included mammalian studies that document the inheritance or modification of metabolic traits in subsequent generations of unexposed descendants. Our inclusive criteria encompass intergenerational and transgenerational studies, as well as multigenerational exposures. Predominantly, this field has been driven by a select group of researchers, potentially shaping the design and focus of existing studies. Consequently, the literature primarily comprises transgenerational rodent investigations into the effects of ancestral exposure to environmental pollutants on sperm DNA methylation. The complexity and volume of data often lead to multiple or redundant publications. This practice, while understandable, may obscure the true extent of the impact of ancestral exposures on the health of non-exposed descendants. In addition to DNA methylation, studies have illuminated the role of sperm RNAs and histone marks in paternally acquired metabolic disorders, expanding our understanding of the mechanisms underlying epigenetic inheritance. CONCLUSIONS This review serves as a comprehensive resource, shedding light on the current state of research in this critical area of science, and underscores the need for continued exploration to uncover the full spectrum of paternally mediated metabolic inheritance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Crisóstomo
- Departmento de Anatomia, UMIB - Unidade Multidisciplinar de Investigação Biomédica, ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade Do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- MediCity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Pedro F Oliveira
- LAQV-REQUIMTE and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Marco G Alves
- Departmento de Anatomia, UMIB - Unidade Multidisciplinar de Investigação Biomédica, ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade Do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- Biotechnology of Animal and Human Reproduction (TechnoSperm), Institute of Food and Agricultural Technology, University of Girona, Girona, Spain.
- Unit of Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Girona, Girona, Spain.
- Institute of Biomedicine - iBiMED and Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
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Zhu L, Tillquist N, Scatolin G, Gately R, Kawaida M, Reiter A, Reed S, Zinn S, Govoni K, Jiang Z. Maternal restricted- and over- feeding during gestation perturb offspring sperm epigenome in sheep. Reproduction 2023; 166:311-322. [PMID: 37647207 PMCID: PMC10962644 DOI: 10.1530/rep-23-0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
In brief Inadequate maternal nutrition during gestation can have immediate and lifelong effects on offspring. This study shows that maternal restricted - and over- nutrition during gestation do not affect semen characteristics in F1 male offspring but alters offspring sperm sncRNA profiles and DNA methylome in sheep. Abstract There is a growing body of evidence that inadequate maternal nutrition during gestation can have immediate and lifelong effects on offspring. However, little is known about the effects of maternal nutrition during gestation on male offspring reproduction. Here, using a sheep model of maternal restricted - and over - nutrition (60 or 140% of the National Research Council requirements) during gestation, we found that maternal restricted - and over - nutrition do not affect semen characteristics (i.e. volume, sperm concentration, pH, sperm motility, sperm morphology) or scrotal circumference in male F1 offspring. However, using small RNA sequencing analysis, we demonstrated that both restricted - and over - nutrition during gestation induced marked changes in composition and expression of sperm small noncoding RNAs (sncRNAs) subpopulations including in male F1 offspring. Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing analysis further identified specific genomic loci where poor maternal nutrition resulted in alterations in DNA methylation. These findings indicate that maternal restricted - and over - nutrition during gestation induce epigenetic modifications in sperm of F1 offspring sperm in sheep, which may contribute to environmentally influenced phenotypes in ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linkai Zhu
- Department of Animal Sciences, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, FL 32610, USA
| | - Nicole Tillquist
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Giovanna Scatolin
- Department of Animal Sciences, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, FL 32610, USA
| | - Rachael Gately
- Department of Ambulatory Medicine and Theriogenology, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536
| | - Mia Kawaida
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Amanda Reiter
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Sarah Reed
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Steven Zinn
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Kristen Govoni
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Zongliang Jiang
- Department of Animal Sciences, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, FL 32610, USA
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Kaufman J, Khan M, Shepard Payne J, Mancini J, Summers White Y. Transgenerational Inheritance and Systemic Racism in America. PSYCHIATRIC RESEARCH AND CLINICAL PRACTICE 2023. [DOI: 10.1176/appi.prcp.20220043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joan Kaufman
- Center for Child and Family Traumatic Stress, Kennedy Krieger Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (J. Kaufman, M. Khan, J. Shepard Payne, J. Mancini, Y. Summers White)
| | - Maria Khan
- Center for Child and Family Traumatic Stress, Kennedy Krieger Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (J. Kaufman, M. Khan, J. Shepard Payne, J. Mancini, Y. Summers White)
| | - Jennifer Shepard Payne
- Center for Child and Family Traumatic Stress, Kennedy Krieger Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (J. Kaufman, M. Khan, J. Shepard Payne, J. Mancini, Y. Summers White)
| | - Julia Mancini
- Center for Child and Family Traumatic Stress, Kennedy Krieger Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (J. Kaufman, M. Khan, J. Shepard Payne, J. Mancini, Y. Summers White)
| | - Yvonne Summers White
- Center for Child and Family Traumatic Stress, Kennedy Krieger Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (J. Kaufman, M. Khan, J. Shepard Payne, J. Mancini, Y. Summers White)
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What is the importance of sperm subpopulations? Anim Reprod Sci 2022; 246:106844. [PMID: 34538510 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2021.106844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The study of sperm subpopulations spans three decades. The origin, meaning, and practical significance, however, are less clear. Current technology for assessing sperm morphology (CASA-Morph) and motility (CASA-Mot) has enabled the accurate evaluation of these features, and there are many options for data classification. Subpopulations could occur as a result of the stage of development of each spermatozoon in the subpopulation. Spermatogenesis might contribute to the production of these subpopulations. Insights from evolutionary biology and recent molecular research are indicative of the diversity among male gametes that could occur from unequal sharing of transcripts and other elements through cytoplasmic bridges between spermatids. Sperm cohorts exiting the gonads would contain different RNA and protein contents, affecting the spermatozoon physiology and associations with the surrounding environmental milieu. Subsequently, these differences could affect how spermatozoa interact with the environmental milieu (maturation, mixing with seminal plasma, and interacting with the environmental milieu, or female genital tract and female gamete). The emergence of sperm subpopulations as an outcome of evolution, related to the reproductive strategies of the species, genital tract structures, and copulatory and fertilization processes. This kind of approach in determining the importance of sperm subpopulations in fertilization capacity should have a practical impact for conducting reproductive technologies, inspiring and enabling new ways for the more efficient use of spermatozoa in the medical, animal breeding, and conservation fields. This manuscript is a contribution to the Special Issue in memory of Dr. Duane Garner.
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Chu MC, Wu HF, Lee CW, Chung YJ, Chi H, Chen PS, Lin HC. Generational synaptic functions of GABA A receptor β3 subunit deteriorations in an animal model of social deficit. J Biomed Sci 2022; 29:51. [PMID: 35821032 PMCID: PMC9277936 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-022-00835-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disruption of normal brain development is implicated in numerous psychiatric disorders with neurodevelopmental origins, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Widespread abnormalities in brain structure and functions caused by dysregulations of neurodevelopmental processes has been recently shown to exert adverse effects across generations. An imbalance between excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) transmission is the putative hypothesis of ASD pathogenesis, supporting by the specific implications of inhibitory γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic system in autistic individuals and animal models of ASD. However, the contribution of GABAergic system in the neuropathophysiology across generations of ASD is still unknown. Here, we uncover profound alterations in the expression and function of GABAA receptors (GABAARs) in the amygdala across generations of the VPA-induced animal model of ASD. METHODS The F2 generation was produced by mating an F1 VPA-induced male offspring with naïve females after a single injection of VPA on embryonic day (E12.5) in F0. Autism-like behaviors were assessed by animal behavior tests. Expression and functional properties of GABAARs and related proteins were examined by using western blotting and electrophysiological techniques. RESULTS Social deficit, repetitive behavior, and emotional comorbidities were demonstrated across two generations of the VPA-induced offspring. Decreased synaptic GABAAR and gephyrin levels, and inhibitory transmission were found in the amygdala from two generations of the VPA-induced offspring with greater reductions in the F2 generation. Weaker association of gephyrin with GABAAR was shown in the F2 generation than the F1 generation. Moreover, dysregulated NMDA-induced enhancements of gephyrin and GABAAR at the synapse in the VPA-induced offspring was worsened in the F2 generation than the F1 generation. Elevated glutamatergic modifications were additionally shown across generations of the VPA-induced offspring without generation difference. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, these findings revealed the E/I synaptic abnormalities in the amygdala from two generations of the VPA-induced offspring with GABAergic deteriorations in the F2 generation, suggesting a potential therapeutic role of the GABAergic system to generational pathophysiology of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chia Chu
- grid.260539.b0000 0001 2059 7017Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Tainan, 112 Taiwan
| | - Han-Fang Wu
- grid.260539.b0000 0001 2059 7017Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Tainan, 112 Taiwan
| | - Chi-Wei Lee
- grid.260539.b0000 0001 2059 7017Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Tainan, 112 Taiwan
| | - Yueh-Jung Chung
- grid.260539.b0000 0001 2059 7017Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Tainan, 112 Taiwan
| | - Hsiang Chi
- grid.260539.b0000 0001 2059 7017Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Tainan, 112 Taiwan
| | - Po See Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 704, Taiwan. .,Institute of Behavioral Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 704, Taiwan.
| | - Hui-Ching Lin
- Department and Institute of Physiology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan. .,Ph.D. Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University and National Health Research Institutes, Taipei, 110, Taiwan. .,Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan.
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Montjean D, Neyroud AS, Yefimova MG, Benkhalifa M, Cabry R, Ravel C. Impact of Endocrine Disruptors upon Non-Genetic Inheritance. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063350. [PMID: 35328771 PMCID: PMC8950994 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Similar to environmental factors, EDCs (endocrine-disrupting chemicals) can influence gene expression without modifying the DNA sequence. It is commonly accepted that the transgenerational inheritance of parentally acquired traits is conveyed by epigenetic alterations also known as “epimutations”. DNA methylation, acetylation, histone modification, RNA-mediated effects and extracellular vesicle effects are the mechanisms that have been described so far to be responsible for these epimutations. They may lead to the transgenerational inheritance of diverse phenotypes in the progeny when they occur in the germ cells of an affected individual. While EDC-induced health effects have dramatically increased over the past decade, limited effects on sperm epigenetics have been described. However, there has been a gain of interest in this issue in recent years. The gametes (sperm and oocyte) represent targets for EDCs and thus a route for environmentally induced changes over several generations. This review aims at providing an overview of the epigenetic mechanisms that might be implicated in this transgenerational inheritance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie Montjean
- Fertilys Fertility Center, 1950 Rue Maurice-Gauvin #103, Laval, QC H7S 1Z5, Canada;
- Correspondence: (D.M.); (C.R.)
| | - Anne-Sophie Neyroud
- CHU de Rennes, Département de Gynécologie Obstétrique et Reproduction Humaine-CECOS, Hôpital Sud, 16 Boulevard de Bulgarie, 35000 Rennes, France;
| | - Marina G. Yefimova
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 194223 St-Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Moncef Benkhalifa
- Fertilys Fertility Center, 1950 Rue Maurice-Gauvin #103, Laval, QC H7S 1Z5, Canada;
- Médecine et Biologie de la Reproduction, CECOS de Picardie, CHU Amiens, 80054 Amiens, France;
- UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80054 Amiens, France
- Peritox, Centre Universitaire de Recherche en Santé, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80054 Amiens, France
| | - Rosalie Cabry
- Médecine et Biologie de la Reproduction, CECOS de Picardie, CHU Amiens, 80054 Amiens, France;
- UFR de Médecine, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80054 Amiens, France
- Peritox, Centre Universitaire de Recherche en Santé, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80054 Amiens, France
| | - Célia Ravel
- CHU de Rennes, Département de Gynécologie Obstétrique et Reproduction Humaine-CECOS, Hôpital Sud, 16 Boulevard de Bulgarie, 35000 Rennes, France;
- CHU Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail)—UMR_S 1085, University Rennes, 35000 Rennes, France
- Correspondence: (D.M.); (C.R.)
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Chromatin alterations during the epididymal maturation of mouse sperm refine the paternally inherited epigenome. Epigenetics Chromatin 2022; 15:2. [PMID: 34991687 PMCID: PMC8734183 DOI: 10.1186/s13072-021-00433-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paternal lifestyle choices and male exposure history have a critical influence on the health and fitness of the next generation. Accordingly, defining the processes of germline programming is essential to resolving how the epigenetic memory of paternal experiences transmits to their offspring. Established dogma holds that all facets of chromatin organization and histone posttranslational modification are complete before sperm exits the testes. However, recent clinical and animal studies suggest that patterns of DNA methylation change during epididymal maturation. In this study, we used complementary proteomic and deep-sequencing approaches to test the hypothesis that sperm posttranslational histone modifications change during epididymal transit. RESULTS Using proteomic analysis to contrast immature spermatozoa and mature sperm isolated from the mouse epididymis, we find progressive changes in multiple histone posttranslational modifications, including H3K4me1, H3K27ac, H3K79me2, H3K64ac, H3K122ac, H4K16ac, H3K9me2, and H4K20me3. Interestingly, some of these changes only occurred on histone variant H3.3, and most involve chromatin modifications associated with gene enhancer activity. In contrast, the bivalent chromatin modifications, H3K4me3, and H3K27me3 remained constant. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with deep sequencing, we find that changes in histone h3, lysine 27 acetylation (H3K27ac) involve sharpening broad diffuse regions into narrow peaks centered on the promoter regions of genes driving embryonic development. Significantly, many of these regions overlap with broad domains of H3K4me3 in oocytes and ATAC-seq signatures of open chromatin identified in MII oocytes and sperm. In contrast, histone h3, lysine 9 dimethylation (H3K9me2) becomes enriched within the promoters of genes driving meiosis and in the distal enhancer regions of tissue-specific genes sequestered at the nuclear lamina. Maturing sperm contain the histone deacetylase enzymes HDAC1 and HDAC3, suggesting the NuRD complex may drive some of these changes. Finally, using Western blotting, we detected changes in chromatin modifications between caput and caudal sperm isolated from rams (Ovis aries), inferring changes in histone modifications are a shared feature of mammalian epididymal maturation. CONCLUSIONS These data extend our understanding of germline programming and reveal that, in addition to trafficking noncoding RNAs, changes in histone posttranslational modifications are a core feature of epididymal maturation.
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Fellous A, Wegner KM, John U, Mark FC, Shama LNS. Windows of opportunity: Ocean warming shapes temperature-sensitive epigenetic reprogramming and gene expression across gametogenesis and embryogenesis in marine stickleback. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2022; 28:54-71. [PMID: 34669228 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Rapid climate change is placing many marine species at risk of local extinction. Recent studies show that epigenetic mechanisms (e.g. DNA methylation, histone modifications) can facilitate both within and transgenerational plasticity to cope with changing environments. However, epigenetic reprogramming (erasure and re-establishment of epigenetic marks) during gamete and early embryo development may hinder transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Most of our knowledge about reprogramming stems from mammals and model organisms, whereas the prevalence and extent of reprogramming among non-model species from wild populations is rarely investigated. Moreover, whether reprogramming dynamics are sensitive to changing environmental conditions is not well known, representing a key knowledge gap in the pursuit to identify mechanisms underlying links between parental exposure to changing climate patterns and environmentally adapted offspring phenotypes. Here, we investigated epigenetic reprogramming (DNA methylation/hydroxymethylation) and gene expression across gametogenesis and embryogenesis of marine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) under three ocean warming scenarios (ambient, +1.5 and +4°C). We found that parental acclimation to ocean warming led to dynamic and temperature-sensitive reprogramming throughout offspring development. Both global methylation/hydroxymethylation and expression of genes involved in epigenetic modifications were strongly and differentially affected by the increased warming scenarios. Comparing transcriptomic profiles from gonads, mature gametes and early embryonic stages showed sex-specific accumulation and temperature sensitivity of several epigenetic actors. DNA methyltransferase induction was primarily maternally inherited (suggesting maternal control of remethylation), whereas induction of several histone-modifying enzymes was shaped by both parents. Importantly, massive, temperature-specific changes to the epigenetic landscape occurred in blastula, a critical stage for successful embryo development, which could, thus, translate to substantial consequences for offspring phenotype resilience in warming environments. In summary, our study identified key stages during gamete and embryo development with temperature-sensitive reprogramming and epigenetic gene regulation, reflecting potential 'windows of opportunity' for adaptive epigenetic responses under future climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Fellous
- Coastal Ecology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, List, Germany
| | - K Mathias Wegner
- Coastal Ecology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, List, Germany
| | - Uwe John
- Ecological Chemistry Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Felix C Mark
- Integrative Ecophysiology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Lisa N S Shama
- Coastal Ecology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, List, Germany
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Cheuquemán C, Maldonado R. Non-coding RNAs and chromatin: key epigenetic factors from spermatogenesis to transgenerational inheritance. Biol Res 2021; 54:41. [PMID: 34930477 PMCID: PMC8686607 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-021-00364-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular fate and gene expression patterns are modulated by different epigenetic factors including non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and chromatin organization. Both factors are dynamic throughout male germ cell differentiation on the seminiferous tubule, despite the transcriptional inactivation in the last stages of spermatogenesis. Sperm maturation during the caput-to-cauda transit on the epididymis involves changes in chromatin organization and the soma-to-germ line transference of ncRNAs that are essential to obtain a functional sperm for fertilization and embryo development. Here, the male environment (diseases, drugs, mental stress) is crucial to modulate these epigenetic factors throughout sperm maturation, affecting the corresponding offspring. Paternal transgenerational inheritance has been directly related to sperm epigenetic changes, most of them associated with variations in the ncRNA content and chromatin marks. Our aim is to give an overview about how epigenetics, focused on ncRNAs and chromatin, is pivotal to understand spermatogenesis and sperm maturation, and how the male environment impacts the sperm epigenome modulating the offspring gene expression pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Cheuquemán
- Núcleo de Ciencias Biológicas, Dirección de Núcleos Transversales, Facultad de estudios Interdisciplinarios, Universidad Mayor, Temuco, Chile
| | - Rodrigo Maldonado
- Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.
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Mohajer N, Joloya EM, Seo J, Shioda T, Blumberg B. Epigenetic Transgenerational Inheritance of the Effects of Obesogen Exposure. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:787580. [PMID: 34975759 PMCID: PMC8716683 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.787580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and metabolic disorders have become a worldwide pandemic affecting millions of people. Although obesity is a multifaceted disease, there is growing evidence supporting the obesogen hypothesis, which proposes that exposure to a subset of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), known as obesogens, promotes obesity. While these effects can be observed in vitro using cell models, in vivo and human epidemiological studies have strengthened this hypothesis. Evidence from animal models showed that the effects of obesogen exposure can be inherited transgenerationally through at least the F4 generation. Transgenerational effects of EDC exposure predispose future generations to undesirable phenotypic traits and diseases, including obesity and related metabolic disorders. The exact mechanisms through which phenotypic traits are passed from an exposed organism to their offspring, without altering the primary DNA sequence, remain largely unknown. Recent research has provided strong evidence suggesting that a variety of epigenetic mechanisms may underlie transgenerational inheritance. These include differential DNA methylation, histone methylation, histone retention, the expression and/or deposition of non-coding RNAs and large-scale alterations in chromatin structure and organization. This review highlights the most recent advances in the field of epigenetics with respect to the transgenerational effects of environmental obesogens. We highlight throughout the paper the strengths and weaknesses of the evidence for proposed mechanisms underlying transgenerational inheritance and why none of these is sufficient to fully explain the phenomenon. We propose that changes in higher order chromatin organization and structure may be a plausible explanation for how some disease predispositions are heritable through multiple generations, including those that were not exposed. A solid understanding of these possible mechanisms is essential to fully understanding how environmental exposures can lead to inherited susceptibility to diseases such as obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Mohajer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Erika M. Joloya
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Jeongbin Seo
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Toshi Shioda
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Bruce Blumberg
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
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Martin M, Hill C, Bewley S, MacLennan AH, Braillon A. Transgenerational adverse effects of valproate? A patient report from 90 affected families. Birth Defects Res 2021; 114:13-16. [PMID: 34866359 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Valproate use during pregnancy increases risk in malformations and neurodevelopmental disorders. Data from the experimental setting in mice showed valproate is a direct inhibitor of histone deacetylase, inducing histone hyperacetylation, histone methylation, and DNA demethylation causing congenital malformations with an epigenetic inheritance. We investigated potential transgenerational adverse effects of valproate. METHODS We questioned 108 individuals (from 90 families) suffering complications due to valproate exposure in utero who were parents themselves (85 women and 23 men) about the occurrence of malformations and neurodevelopmental disorders in their children. All were member of Aide aux Parents d'Enfants souffrants du Syndrome de l'AntiConvulsivant (APESAC), a charity created in 2011 to provide personal assistance and support to families suffering complications due to valproate exposure during pregnancy. RESULTS Among their 187 children they reported 43 (23%) children with malformation(s) (26 hand or foot malformations; 15 dysmorphic facial features; 10 renal/urologic malformations; 6 spina bifida; 4 cardiac malformation; 2 craniosynostosis; 2 cleft lip and palate) and 82 (44%) children with neurodevelopmental disorders (63 problematic behaviors and autism; 41 psychomotor disorders; 16 language problems; 16 attention deficit; 5 mental retardation). Only 88 (47%) children had neither malformation nor developmental disorders. CONCLUSION These data add to the need for funding pharmacoepidemiological investigations of epigenetic inheritance caused by drugs causing malformations or neurodevelopmental disorders. Individuals exposed in utero to valproate must be informed about the risk, so they can consider fertility options, antenatal diagnosis, and adequate early surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Martin
- Aide aux Parents d'Enfants souffrants du Syndrome de l'AntiConvulsivant, Pollestres, France
| | - Catherine Hill
- Service de Biostatistique et d'Epidémiologie, Gustave Roussy, Paris-Saclay University, Villejuif, France
| | - Susan Bewley
- Department of Women & Children's Health, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Alastair H MacLennan
- Australian Collaborative Cerebral Palsy Research Group, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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Ben Maamar M, Nilsson EE, Skinner MK. Epigenetic transgenerational inheritance, gametogenesis and germline development†. Biol Reprod 2021; 105:570-592. [PMID: 33929020 PMCID: PMC8444706 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioab085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most important developing cell types in any biological system is the gamete (sperm and egg). The transmission of phenotypes and optimally adapted physiology to subsequent generations is in large part controlled by gametogenesis. In contrast to genetics, the environment actively regulates epigenetics to impact the physiology and phenotype of cellular and biological systems. The integration of epigenetics and genetics is critical for all developmental biology systems at the cellular and organism level. The current review is focused on the role of epigenetics during gametogenesis for both the spermatogenesis system in the male and oogenesis system in the female. The developmental stages from the initial primordial germ cell through gametogenesis to the mature sperm and egg are presented. How environmental factors can influence the epigenetics of gametogenesis to impact the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of phenotypic and physiological change in subsequent generations is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Millissia Ben Maamar
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Eric E Nilsson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Michael K Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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Manterola M, Palominos MF, Calixto A. The Heritability of Behaviors Associated With the Host Gut Microbiota. Front Immunol 2021; 12:658551. [PMID: 34054822 PMCID: PMC8155505 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.658551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
What defines whether the interaction between environment and organism creates a genetic memory able to be transferred to subsequent generations? Bacteria and the products of their metabolism are the most ubiquitous biotic environments to which every living organism is exposed. Both microbiota and host establish a framework where environmental and genetic factors are integrated to produce adaptive life traits, some of which can be inherited. Thus, the interplay between host and microbe is a powerful model to study how phenotypic plasticity is inherited. Communication between host and microbe can occur through diverse molecules such as small RNAs (sRNAs) and the RNA interference machinery, which have emerged as mediators and carriers of heritable environmentally induced responses. Notwithstanding, it is still unclear how the organism integrates sRNA signaling between different tissues to orchestrate a systemic bacterially induced response that can be inherited. Here we discuss current evidence of heritability produced by the intestinal microbiota from several species. Neurons and gut are the sensing systems involved in transmitting changes through transcriptional and post-transcriptional modifications to the gonads. Germ cells express inflammatory receptors, and their development and function are regulated by host and bacterial metabolites and sRNAs thus suggesting that the dynamic interplay between host and microbe underlies the host's capacity to transmit heritable behaviors. We discuss how the host detects changes in the microbiota that can modulate germ cells genomic functions. We also explore the nature of the interactions that leave permanent or long-term memory in the host and propose mechanisms by which the microbiota can regulate the development and epigenetic reprogramming of germ cells, thus influencing the inheritance of the host. We highlight the vast contribution of the bacterivore nematode C. elegans and its commensal and pathogenic bacteria to the understanding on how behavioral adaptations can be inter and transgenerational inherited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia Manterola
- Programa de Genética Humana, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - M. Fernanda Palominos
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias, mención Neurociencia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
| | - Andrea Calixto
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso, Instituto de Neurociencia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
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Zhu L, Marjani SL, Jiang Z. The Epigenetics of Gametes and Early Embryos and Potential Long-Range Consequences in Livestock Species-Filling in the Picture With Epigenomic Analyses. Front Genet 2021; 12:557934. [PMID: 33747031 PMCID: PMC7966815 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.557934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The epigenome is dynamic and forged by epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNA species. Increasing lines of evidence support the concept that certain acquired traits are derived from environmental exposure during early embryonic and fetal development, i.e., fetal programming, and can even be "memorized" in the germline as epigenetic information and transmitted to future generations. Advances in technology are now driving the global profiling and precise editing of germline and embryonic epigenomes, thereby improving our understanding of epigenetic regulation and inheritance. These achievements open new avenues for the development of technologies or potential management interventions to counteract adverse conditions or improve performance in livestock species. In this article, we review the epigenetic analyses (DNA methylation, histone modification, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNAs) of germ cells and embryos in mammalian livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs) and the epigenetic determinants of gamete and embryo viability. We also discuss the effects of parental environmental exposures on the epigenetics of gametes and the early embryo, and evidence for transgenerational inheritance in livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linkai Zhu
- AgCenter, School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Sadie L Marjani
- Department of Biology, Central Connecticut State University, New Britain, CT, United States
| | - Zongliang Jiang
- AgCenter, School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
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Nilsson E, Ben Maamar M, Skinner MK. Environmental impacts on sperm and oocyte epigenetics affect embryo cell epigenetics and transcription to promote the epigenetic inheritance of pathology and phenotypic variation. Reprod Fertil Dev 2021; 33:102-107. [PMID: 38769672 DOI: 10.1071/rd20255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that exposure to environmental factors can cause epigenetic modifications to germ cells, particularly sperm, to promote epigenetic and transcriptome changes in the embryo. These germ cell and embryo cell epigenetic alterations are associated with phenotypic changes in offspring. Epigenetic inheritance requires epigenetic changes (i.e. epimutations) in germ cells that promote epigenetic and gene expression changes in embryos. The objective of this perspective is to examine the evidence that germ cell epigenome modifications are associated with embryo cell epigenetic and transcriptome changes that affect the subsequent development of all developing somatic cells to promote phenotype change. Various epigenetic changes in sperm, including changes to histone methylation, histone retention, non-coding RNA expression and DNA methylation, have been associated with alterations in embryo cell epigenetics and gene expression. Few studies have investigated this link for oocytes. The studies reviewed herein support the idea that environmentally induced epigenetic changes in germ cells affect alterations in embryo cell epigenetics and transcriptomes that have an important role in the epigenetic inheritance of pathology and phenotypic change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Nilsson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Millissia Ben Maamar
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Michael K Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA; and Corresponding author
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Thorson JLM, Beck D, Ben Maamar M, Nilsson EE, McBirney M, Skinner MK. Epigenome-wide association study for atrazine induced transgenerational DNA methylation and histone retention sperm epigenetic biomarkers for disease. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239380. [PMID: 33326428 PMCID: PMC7743986 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrazine is a common agricultural herbicide previously shown to promote epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of disease to subsequent generations. The current study was designed as an epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) to identify transgenerational sperm disease associated differential DNA methylation regions (DMRs) and differential histone retention regions (DHRs). Gestating female F0 generation rats were transiently exposed to atrazine during the period of embryonic gonadal sex determination, and then subsequent F1, F2, and F3 generations obtained in the absence of any continued exposure. The transgenerational F3 generation males were assessed for disease and sperm collected for epigenetic analysis. Pathology was observed in pubertal onset and for testis disease, prostate disease, kidney disease, lean pathology, and multiple disease. For these pathologies, sufficient numbers of individual males with only a single specific disease were identified. The sperm DNA and chromatin were isolated from adult one-year animals with the specific diseases and analyzed for DMRs with methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) sequencing and DHRs with histone chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) sequencing. Transgenerational F3 generation males with or without disease were compared to identify the disease specific epimutation biomarkers. All pathologies were found to have disease specific DMRs and DHRs which were found to predominantly be distinct for each disease. No common DMRs or DHRs were found among all the pathologies. Epimutation gene associations were identified and found to correlate to previously known disease linked genes. This is one of the first observations of potential sperm disease biomarkers for histone retention sites. Although further studies with expanded animal numbers are required, the current study provides evidence the EWAS analysis is effective for the identification of potential pathology epimutation biomarkers for disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. M. Thorson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Daniel Beck
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Millissia Ben Maamar
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Eric E. Nilsson
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Margaux McBirney
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Michael K. Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Environmentally Induced Epigenetic Transgenerational Inheritance and the Weismann Barrier: The Dawn of Neo-Lamarckian Theory. J Dev Biol 2020; 8:jdb8040028. [PMID: 33291540 PMCID: PMC7768451 DOI: 10.3390/jdb8040028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
For the past 120 years, the Weismann barrier and associated germ plasm theory of heredity have been a doctrine that has impacted evolutionary biology and our concepts of inheritance through the germline. Although August Weismann in his 1872 book was correct that the sperm and egg were the only cells to transmit molecular information to the subsequent generation, the concept that somatic cells do not impact the germline (i.e., the Weismann barrier) is incorrect. However, the doctrine or dogma of the Weismann barrier still influences many scientific fields and topics. The discovery of epigenetics, and more recently environmentally induced epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of phenotypic variation and pathology, have had significant impacts on evolution theory and medicine today. Environmental epigenetics and the concept of epigenetic transgenerational inheritance refute aspects of the Weismann barrier and require a re-evaluation of both inheritance theory and evolution theory.
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