1
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Sylvestre F, Mérot C, Normandeau E, Bernatchez L. Searching for intra-locus sexual conflicts in the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) genome. Evolution 2023:7146184. [PMID: 37105941 DOI: 10.1093/evolut/qpad075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
Differences between sexes in trait fitness optima can generate intra-locus sexual conflicts that have the potential to maintain genetic diversity through balancing selection. However, these differences are unlikely to be associated with strong selective coefficients and are challenging to detect. Additionally, recent studies have highlighted that duplications on sexual chromosomes can create artefactual signals of intra-locus sexual conflicts. Thus, testing the relationship between intra-locus sexual conflicts and balancing selection requires stringent filtering of duplicated regions, and dedicated methods to detect loci with low levels of intersex differentiation. In this study, we investigated intra-locus sexual conflicts in the three-spined stickleback using whole genome sequencing (mean coverage = 12X) of 50 females and 49 males from an anadromous population in the St. Lawrence River, Québec, Canada. After stringent filtering of duplications from the sex chromosomes, we compared three methods to detect intra-locus sexual conflicts. We found only two genomic regions under potential intra-locus sexual conflict that also showed signals of balancing selection. Overall, our results suggest that most intra-locus sexual conflicts do not drive long-term balancing selection and are most likely transient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Sylvestre
- Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Claire Mérot
- Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- UMR 6553 Ecobio, OSUR, CNRS, Université de Rennes, Rennes, France
| | - Eric Normandeau
- Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Louis Bernatchez
- Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
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2
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Fellous A, Wegner KM, John U, Mark FC, Shama LNS. Windows of opportunity: Ocean warming shapes temperature-sensitive epigenetic reprogramming and gene expression across gametogenesis and embryogenesis in marine stickleback. Glob Chang Biol 2022; 28:54-71. [PMID: 34669228 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Rapid climate change is placing many marine species at risk of local extinction. Recent studies show that epigenetic mechanisms (e.g. DNA methylation, histone modifications) can facilitate both within and transgenerational plasticity to cope with changing environments. However, epigenetic reprogramming (erasure and re-establishment of epigenetic marks) during gamete and early embryo development may hinder transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Most of our knowledge about reprogramming stems from mammals and model organisms, whereas the prevalence and extent of reprogramming among non-model species from wild populations is rarely investigated. Moreover, whether reprogramming dynamics are sensitive to changing environmental conditions is not well known, representing a key knowledge gap in the pursuit to identify mechanisms underlying links between parental exposure to changing climate patterns and environmentally adapted offspring phenotypes. Here, we investigated epigenetic reprogramming (DNA methylation/hydroxymethylation) and gene expression across gametogenesis and embryogenesis of marine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) under three ocean warming scenarios (ambient, +1.5 and +4°C). We found that parental acclimation to ocean warming led to dynamic and temperature-sensitive reprogramming throughout offspring development. Both global methylation/hydroxymethylation and expression of genes involved in epigenetic modifications were strongly and differentially affected by the increased warming scenarios. Comparing transcriptomic profiles from gonads, mature gametes and early embryonic stages showed sex-specific accumulation and temperature sensitivity of several epigenetic actors. DNA methyltransferase induction was primarily maternally inherited (suggesting maternal control of remethylation), whereas induction of several histone-modifying enzymes was shaped by both parents. Importantly, massive, temperature-specific changes to the epigenetic landscape occurred in blastula, a critical stage for successful embryo development, which could, thus, translate to substantial consequences for offspring phenotype resilience in warming environments. In summary, our study identified key stages during gamete and embryo development with temperature-sensitive reprogramming and epigenetic gene regulation, reflecting potential 'windows of opportunity' for adaptive epigenetic responses under future climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Fellous
- Coastal Ecology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, List, Germany
| | - K Mathias Wegner
- Coastal Ecology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, List, Germany
| | - Uwe John
- Ecological Chemistry Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Felix C Mark
- Integrative Ecophysiology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Lisa N S Shama
- Coastal Ecology Section, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Wadden Sea Station Sylt, List, Germany
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3
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Bal TMP, Llanos-Garrido A, Chaturvedi A, Verdonck I, Hellemans B, Raeymaekers JAM. Adaptive Divergence under Gene Flow along an Environmental Gradient in Two Coexisting Stickleback Species. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:435. [PMID: 33803820 PMCID: PMC8003309 DOI: 10.3390/genes12030435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a general and solid theoretical framework to explain how the interplay between natural selection and gene flow affects local adaptation. Yet, to what extent coexisting closely related species evolve collectively or show distinctive evolutionary responses remains a fundamental question. To address this, we studied the population genetic structure and morphological differentiation of sympatric three-spined and nine-spined stickleback. We conducted genotyping-by-sequencing and morphological trait characterisation using 24 individuals of each species from four lowland brackish water (LBW), four lowland freshwater (LFW) and three upland freshwater (UFW) sites in Belgium and the Netherlands. This combination of sites allowed us to contrast populations from isolated but environmentally similar locations (LFW vs. UFW), isolated but environmentally heterogeneous locations (LBW vs. UFW), and well-connected but environmentally heterogenous locations (LBW vs. LFW). Overall, both species showed comparable levels of genetic diversity and neutral genetic differentiation. However, for all three spatial scales, signatures of morphological and genomic adaptive divergence were substantially stronger among populations of the three-spined stickleback than among populations of the nine-spined stickleback. Furthermore, most outlier SNPs in the two species were associated with local freshwater sites. The few outlier SNPs that were associated with the split between brackish water and freshwater populations were located on one linkage group in three-spined stickleback and two linkage groups in nine-spined stickleback. We conclude that while both species show congruent evolutionary and genomic patterns of divergent selection, both species differ in the magnitude of their response to selection regardless of the geographical and environmental context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs M. P. Bal
- Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, N-8049 Bodø, Norway;
| | | | - Anurag Chaturvedi
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (I.V.); (B.H.)
| | - Io Verdonck
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (I.V.); (B.H.)
| | - Bart Hellemans
- Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; (I.V.); (B.H.)
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4
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Abstract
Parasites are arguably among the strongest drivers of natural selection, constraining hosts to evolve resistance and tolerance mechanisms. Although, the genetic basis of adaptation to parasite infection has been widely studied, little is known about how epigenetic changes contribute to parasite resistance and eventually, adaptation. Here, we investigated the role of host DNA methylation modifications to respond to parasite infections. In a controlled infection experiment, we used the three-spined stickleback fish, a model species for host-parasite studies, and their nematode parasite Camallanus lacustris. We showed that the levels of DNA methylation are higher in infected fish. Results furthermore suggest correlations between DNA methylation and shifts in key fitness and immune traits between infected and control fish, including respiratory burst and functional trans-generational traits such as the concentration of motile sperm. We revealed that genes associated with metabolic, developmental, and regulatory processes (cell death and apoptosis) were differentially methylated between infected and control fish. Interestingly, genes such as the neuropeptide FF receptor 2 and the integrin alpha 1 as well as molecular pathways including the Th1 and Th2 cell differentiation were hypermethylated in infected fish, suggesting parasite-mediated repression mechanisms of immune responses. Altogether, we demonstrate that parasite infection contributes to genome-wide DNA methylation modifications. Our study brings novel insights into the evolution of vertebrate immunity and suggests that epigenetic mechanisms are complementary to genetic responses against parasite-mediated selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kostas Sagonas
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Britta S Meyer
- Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Fishes, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Kiel, Germany
| | - Joshka Kaufmann
- School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Republic of Ireland
- Department for Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Tobias L Lenz
- Research Group for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Robert Häsler
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Christophe Eizaguirre
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
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5
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Huang Y, Feulner PGD, Eizaguirre C, Lenz TL, Bornberg-Bauer E, Milinski M, Reusch TBH, Chain FJJ. Genome-Wide Genotype-Expression Relationships Reveal Both Copy Number and Single Nucleotide Differentiation Contribute to Differential Gene Expression between Stickleback Ecotypes. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 11:2344-2359. [PMID: 31298693 PMCID: PMC6735750 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evz148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated and independent emergence of trait divergence that matches habitat differences is a sign of parallel evolution by natural selection. Yet, the molecular underpinnings that are targeted by adaptive evolution often remain elusive. We investigate this question by combining genome-wide analyses of copy number variants (CNVs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and gene expression across four pairs of lake and river populations of the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We tested whether CNVs that span entire genes and SNPs occurring in putative cis-regulatory regions contribute to gene expression differences between sticklebacks from lake and river origins. We found 135 gene CNVs that showed a significant positive association between gene copy number and gene expression, suggesting that CNVs result in dosage effects that can fuel phenotypic variation and serve as substrates for habitat-specific selection. Copy number differentiation between lake and river sticklebacks also contributed to expression differences of two immune-related genes in immune tissues, cathepsin A and GIMAP7. In addition, we identified SNPs in cis-regulatory regions (eSNPs) associated with the expression of 1,865 genes, including one eSNP upstream of a carboxypeptidase gene where both the SNP alleles differentiated and the gene was differentially expressed between lake and river populations. Our study highlights two types of mutations as important sources of genetic variation involved in the evolution of gene expression and in potentially facilitating repeated adaptation to novel environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Huang
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany.,Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Philine G D Feulner
- Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution, Centre of Ecology, Evolution and Biogeochemistry, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Kastanienbaum, Switzerland.,Division of Aquatic Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Eizaguirre
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, United Kingdom
| | - Tobias L Lenz
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Erich Bornberg-Bauer
- Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, Westfälische Wilhelms University, Münster, Germany
| | - Manfred Milinski
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Thorsten B H Reusch
- Marine Evolutionary Ecology, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany
| | - Frédéric J J Chain
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA
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6
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Abstract
Populations of animals are composed of individuals that differ in ecologically relevant behaviors. Building evidence also suggests that individuals occupy different social niches. Here, in a mark-recapture experiment, we show evidence of an interacting effect of behavior and social niche on survival in the wild: bold individuals had higher survival if they were initially captured in groups while shy, inactive individuals had higher survival if they were initially captured when alone. These findings provide support for the hypothesis that behavioral type-environment correlations can be favored by natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Pearish
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL
| | - Miles K. Bensky
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL
| | - Alison M. Bell
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL
| | - Carl R. Woese
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, 1206 W Gregory Dr., Urbana, IL
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7
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Jones NAR, Spence R, Jones FAM, Spence-Jones HC. Shade as enrichment: testing preferences for shelter in two model fish species. J Fish Biol 2019; 95:1161-1165. [PMID: 31454410 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We compared preferences shown by zebrafish Danio rerio and three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus for shelter provided by above-tank shade and artificial plants. Zebrafish showed no preference for either shelter, whereas sticklebacks showed a preference for both shelter types over open areas and for shade over plants. Our results suggest shade may be used as enrichment for captive fish and re-emphasise the importance of species-specific welfare considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick A R Jones
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Rowena Spence
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK
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8
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Dean LL, Magalhaes IS, Foote A, D'Agostino D, McGowan S, MacColl ADC. Admixture between ancient lineages, selection, and the formation of sympatric stickleback species-pairs. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 36:2481-2497. [PMID: 31297536 PMCID: PMC6805233 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msz161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological speciation has become a popular model for the development and maintenance of reproductive isolation in closely related sympatric pairs of species or ecotypes. An implicit assumption has been that such pairs originate (possibly with gene flow) from a recent, genetically homogeneous ancestor. However, recent genomic data has revealed that currently sympatric taxa are often a result of secondary contact between ancestrally allopatric lineages. This has sparked an interest in the importance of initial hybridization upon secondary contact, with genomic re-analysis of classic examples of ecological speciation often implicating admixture in speciation. We describe a novel occurrence of unusually well-developed reproductive isolation in a model system for ecological speciation: the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), breeding sympatrically in multiple lagoons on the Scottish island of North Uist. Using morphological data, targeted genotyping and genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data we show that lagoon resident and anadromous ecotypes are strongly reproductively isolated with an estimated hybridization rate of only ∼1%. We use palaeoecological and genetic data to test three hypotheses to explain the existence of these species-pairs. Our results suggest that recent, purely ecological speciation from a genetically homogeneous ancestor is probably not solely responsible for the evolution of species-pairs. Instead we reveal a complex colonisation history with multiple ancestral lineages contributing to the genetic composition of species-pairs, alongside strong disruptive selection. Our results imply a role for admixture upon secondary contact and are consistent with the recent suggestion that the genomic underpinning of ecological speciation often has an older, allopatric origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Dean
- School of Life Sciences, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
| | - Isabel S Magalhaes
- School of Life Sciences, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK.,Department of Life Sciences, Whitelands College, University of Roehampton, London, UK
| | - Andrew Foote
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, UK
| | - Daniele D'Agostino
- School of Life Sciences, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
| | - Suzanne McGowan
- School of Geography, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
| | - Andrew D C MacColl
- School of Life Sciences, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
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9
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Pietrak M, Jensen A, Barbin Zydlewski G, Bricknell I. The Three-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus 1758, plays a minor role as a host of Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer 1837) in the Gulf of Maine. J Fish Dis 2019; 42:985-989. [PMID: 31044445 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The sea louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer 1837), is a significant parasite of farmed salmon throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Management of on-farm louse populations can be improved by understanding the role that wild fish play in sustaining and providing refuge for the local population of sea lice. In this study, 1,064 sticklebacks were captured. Of these animals, 176 individuals were carrying a total of 238 sea lice, yielding a prevalence and intensity of 16.5% and 1.4 lice per fish, respectively. Detailed examination of the sea lice on the three-spined sticklebacks captured in Cobscook Bay found two L. salmonis individuals using three-spined sticklebacks as hosts. A 2012 survey of wild fish in Cobscook Bay, Maine, found multiple wild hosts for Caligus elongatus (von Nordmann 1832), including three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.), but no L. salmonis were found in this earlier study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pietrak
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, Franklin, Maine
| | - Alexander Jensen
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | | | - Ian Bricknell
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
- USA Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
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10
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Morozov S, McCairns RJS, Merilä J. FishResp: R package and GUI application for analysis of aquatic respirometry data. Conserv Physiol 2019; 7:coz003. [PMID: 30746152 PMCID: PMC6364290 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Intermittent-flow respirometry is widely used to measure oxygen uptake rates and subsequently estimate aerobic metabolic rates of aquatic animals. However, the lack of a standard quality-control software to detect technical problems represents a potential impediment to comparisons across studies in the field of evolutionary and conservation physiology. Here, we introduce 'FishResp', a versatile R package and its graphical implementation for quality-control and filtering of raw respirometry data. Our goal is to provide a straightforward, cross-platform and free software to help improve the quality and comparability of metabolic rate estimates for reducing methodological fragmentation in the field of aquatic respirometry. FishResp accepts data from various respirometry systems, allows users to detect potential mechanical problems which can occur during oxygen uptake measurements (e.g. chamber leaking, poor water circulation), and offers six options to correct raw data for microbial oxygen consumption. The software performs filtering of raw data based on user criteria, and produces accurate and unbiased estimates of absolute and mass-specific metabolic rates. Using data from three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata), we demonstrate the virtues of FishResp, highlighting the importance of detecting mechanical problems and correcting measurements for background respiration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Morozov
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - R J Scott McCairns
- ESE, Ecology and Ecosystem Health, INRA, Agrocampus Ouest, Rennes, France
| | - Juha Merilä
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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11
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Lenz TL, Hafer N, Samonte IE, Yeates SE, Milinski M. Cryptic haplotype-specific gamete selection yields offspring with optimal MHC immune genes. Evolution 2018; 72:2478-2490. [PMID: 30246285 PMCID: PMC6282957 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Females choose specific mates in order to produce fitter offspring. However, several factors interfere with females' control over fertilization of their eggs, including sneaker males and phenotypically unpredictable allele segregation during meiosis. Mate choice at the individual level thus provides only a poor approximation for obtaining the best genetic match. Consequently, postcopulatory sperm selection by female oocytes has been proposed as a mechanism to achieve complementary combinations of parental haplotypes. Here, using controlled in vitro fertilization of three‐spined stickleback eggs, we find haplotype‐specific fertilization bias toward gametes with complementary major histocompatibility complex (MHC) immunogenes. The resulting zygote (and thus offspring) genotypes exhibit an intermediate level of individual MHC diversity that was previously shown to confer highest pathogen resistance. Our finding of haplotype‐specific gamete selection thus represents an intriguing mechanism for fine‐tuned optimization of the offspring's immune gene composition and an evolutionary advantage in the Red Queen dynamics of host‐parasite coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias L Lenz
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Nina Hafer
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Irene E Samonte
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Sarah E Yeates
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany.,Current Address: School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Manfred Milinski
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
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12
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Singkam AR, MacColl ADC. Otolith development in wild populations of stickleback: Jones & Hynes method does not apply to most populations. J Fish Biol 2018; 93:272-281. [PMID: 29956304 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper critiques Jones & Hynes (1950) findings by analysing sequential samples of otoliths from three wild populations of Gasterosteus aculeatus from North Uist, Scotland and Nottingham, England. Contrary to Jones & Hynes (1950), but coincident with the finding of later researchers, our results showed that no true translucent ring formed in the otolith of G. aculeatus during their first summer. The first translucent ring was probably starting to be formed by the end of summer and was completed by the end of their first winter. There was no second opaque ring in the otoliths of G. aculeatus before they passed their first winter. The second opaque ring was just starting to appear by early April of the second year in the southern population i.e. Nottingham, but later, by May, in the northern populations i.e. North Uist. Formation of the opaque ring in G. aculeatus mostly occurs in spring and summer, with younger fish starting earlier. In contrast, the formation of translucent rings is mostly during autumn and winter, but can be more widespread through the year, possibly as a result of reproductive investment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul R Singkam
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
- Pendidikan Biologi, JPMIPA-FKIP, Universitas Bengkulu, Bengkulu, Indonesia
| | - Andrew D C MacColl
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK
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13
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Fox RJ, Head ML, Barber I. Good parenting may not increase reproductive success under environmental extremes. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1638-1646. [PMID: 30063102 PMCID: PMC6849592 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
For species exhibiting parental care, the way in which parents adjust care behaviour to compensate for environmental change potentially influences offspring survival and, ultimately, population viability. Using the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) - a species in which males provide parental care by building and tending a nest and fanning the eggs - we examined how low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels affect paternal care, embryo development and survival. Although levels of nest tending were unaffected by DO level, we found that larger males fanned their embryos more under low oxygen conditions. This resulted in faster rates of embryo development within the clutches of these larger males, but reduced embryo survival at 7 days post-fertilization compared to clutches of smaller males. Our results suggest that although parents may attempt to compensate for environmental change via alterations to care behaviour, their ability to do so can be dependent on parental phenotype. This sets up the potential for oxygen levels to act on the strength and direction of selection within populations. We discuss possible explanations for the surprising result that supposedly adaptive changes in care behaviour by large males (i.e. increased fanning) led to reduced embryo survival at 7 days post-fertilization, and whether, as a consequence, acute environmental conditions may have the potential to overwhelm selection on sexual traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Fox
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia.,Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Megan L Head
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Iain Barber
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.,School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, UK
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14
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Saul MC, Blatti C, Yang W, Bukhari SA, Shpigler HY, Troy JM, Seward CH, Sloofman L, Chandrasekaran S, Bell AM, Stubbs L, Robinson GE, Zhao SD, Sinha S. Cross-species systems analysis of evolutionary toolkits of neurogenomic response to social challenge. Genes Brain Behav 2018; 18:e12502. [PMID: 29968347 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Social challenges like territorial intrusions evoke behavioral responses in widely diverging species. Recent work has showed that evolutionary "toolkits"-genes and modules with lineage-specific variations but deep conservation of function-participate in the behavioral response to social challenge. Here, we develop a multispecies computational-experimental approach to characterize such a toolkit at a systems level. Brain transcriptomic responses to social challenge was probed via RNA-seq profiling in three diverged species-honey bees, mice and three-spined stickleback fish-following a common methodology, allowing fair comparisons across species. Data were collected from multiple brain regions and multiple time points after social challenge exposure, achieving anatomical and temporal resolution substantially greater than previous work. We developed statistically rigorous analyses equipped to find homologous functional groups among these species at the levels of individual genes, functional and coexpressed gene modules, and transcription factor subnetworks. We identified six orthogroups involved in response to social challenge, including groups represented by mouse genes Npas4 and Nr4a1, as well as common modulation of systems such as transcriptional regulators, ion channels, G-protein-coupled receptors and synaptic proteins. We also identified conserved coexpression modules enriched for mitochondrial fatty acid metabolism and heat shock that constitute the shared neurogenomic response. Our analysis suggests a toolkit wherein nuclear receptors, interacting with chaperones, induce transcriptional changes in mitochondrial activity, neural cytoarchitecture and synaptic transmission after social challenge. It shows systems-level mechanisms that have been repeatedly co-opted during evolution of analogous behaviors, thus advancing the genetic toolkit concept beyond individual genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Saul
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Charles Blatti
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Wei Yang
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Syed A Bukhari
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Interdisciplinary Informatics Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Hagai Y Shpigler
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Joseph M Troy
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Interdisciplinary Informatics Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Christopher H Seward
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Laura Sloofman
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, New York
| | | | - Alison M Bell
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Interdisciplinary Informatics Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Lisa Stubbs
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Interdisciplinary Informatics Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Gene E Robinson
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Sihai D Zhao
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Saurabh Sinha
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
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15
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Bell AM, Trapp R, Keagy J. Parenting behaviour is highly heritable in male stickleback. R Soc Open Sci 2018; 5:171029. [PMID: 29410816 PMCID: PMC5792893 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Parental care is critical for fitness, yet little is known about its genetic basis. Here, we estimate the heritability of parenting behaviour in a species famous for its diversity and its behavioural repertoire: three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Male three-spined stickleback are the sole providers of parental care that is necessary for offspring survival; therefore, this system offers the opportunity to study the inheritance of parental behaviour when selection is primarily acting on males. Fanning behaviour is a conspicuous parental behaviour that is readily quantified in this species. We show that the heritability of fanning behaviour is ≥0.9 and significantly different from zero within a freshwater population. Moreover, there was abundant genetic variation for fanning behaviour, indicating that it could readily evolve. These results suggest that parenting behaviour is tractable for further genetic dissection in this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison M. Bell
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Rebecca Trapp
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jason Keagy
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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16
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Vitt S, Zierul JE, Bakker TCM, Rick IP. Long-term UVB exposure promotes predator-inspection behaviour in a fish. Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2017.0497. [PMID: 29237811 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultraviolet-B radiation (UVB) reaching the earth's surface has increased due to human-caused stratospheric ozone depletion. Whereas the harmful effects of UVB on aquatic organisms are well studied at the molecular and cellular level, recent studies have also begun to address behavioural changes caused by sublethal amounts of UVB. However, the behavioural consequences of long-term exposure to ecologically relevant UVB levels over several life stages are virtually unknown, particularly with regard to predator-prey behaviour. We found increased predator-inspection behaviour together with a smaller body length in three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) after fish were exposed for about seven months to natural sunlight conditions with enhanced UVB, compared with full siblings exposed to natural sunlight only. The observed change in antipredator behaviour may reflect a direct behavioural response mediated through UVB-induced oxidative stress during development. Alternatively, the smaller body size in UVB-exposed fish may result in an increased inspection effort allowing them to spend more time foraging. Our findings suggest that, within the scope of environmental change, UVB radiation constitutes an important stress factor by eliciting behavioural responses that influence crucial ecological processes, such as predator-prey interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Vitt
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Janina E Zierul
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Theo C M Bakker
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ingolf P Rick
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
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17
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Lai F, Fagernes CE, Bernier NJ, Miller GM, Munday PL, Jutfelt F, Nilsson GE. Responses of neurogenesis and neuroplasticity related genes to elevated CO 2 levels in the brain of three teleost species. Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2017.0240. [PMID: 28855412 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The continuous increase of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere resulting in ocean acidification has been reported to affect brain function in some fishes. During adulthood, cell proliferation is fundamental for fish brain growth and for it to adapt in response to external stimuli, such as environmental changes. Here we report the first expression study of genes regulating neurogenesis and neuroplasticity in brains of three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), cinnamon anemonefish (Amphiprion melanopus) and spiny damselfish (Acanthochromis polyacanthus) exposed to elevated CO2 The mRNA expression levels of the neurogenic differentiation factor (NeuroD) and doublecortin (DCX) were upregulated in three-spined stickleback exposed to high-CO2 compared with controls, while no changes were detected in the other species. The mRNA expression levels of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) remained unaffected in the high-CO2 exposed groups compared to the control in all three species. These results indicate a species-specific regulation of genes involved in neurogenesis in response to elevated ambient CO2 levels. The higher expression of NeuroD and DCX mRNA transcripts in the brain of high-CO2-exposed three-spined stickleback, together with the lack of effects on mRNA levels in cinnamon anemonefish and spiny damselfish, indicate differences in coping mechanisms among fish in response to the predicted-future CO2 level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriana Lai
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Gabrielle M Miller
- Institute for Biology and Environmental Science, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
| | - Fredrik Jutfelt
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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18
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Brunner FS, Anaya-Rojas JM, Matthews B, Eizaguirre C. Experimental evidence that parasites drive eco-evolutionary feedbacks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:3678-83. [PMID: 28320947 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1619147114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Host resistance to parasites is a rapidly evolving trait that can influence how hosts modify ecosystems. Eco-evolutionary feedbacks may develop if the ecosystem effects of host resistance influence selection on subsequent host generations. In a mesocosm experiment, using a recently diverged (<100 generations) pair of lake and stream three-spined sticklebacks, we tested how experimental exposure to a common fish parasite (Gyrodactylus spp.) affects interactions between hosts and their ecosystems in two environmental conditions (low and high nutrients). In both environments, we found that stream sticklebacks were more resistant to Gyrodactylus and had different gene expression profiles than lake sticklebacks. This differential infection led to contrasting effects of sticklebacks on a broad range of ecosystem properties, including zooplankton community structure and nutrient cycling. These ecosystem modifications affected the survival, body condition, and gene expression profiles of a subsequent fish generation. In particular, lake juvenile fish suffered increased mortality in ecosystems previously modified by lake adults, whereas stream fish showed decreased body condition in stream fish-modified ecosystems. Parasites reinforced selection against lake juveniles in lake fish-modified ecosystems, but only under oligotrophic conditions. Overall, our results highlight the overlapping timescales and the interplay of host-parasite and host-ecosystem interactions. We provide experimental evidence that parasites influence host-mediated effects on ecosystems and, thereby, change the likelihood and strength of eco-evolutionary feedbacks.
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19
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Lai F, Fagernes CE, Jutfelt F, Nilsson GE. Expression of genes involved in brain GABAergic neurotransmission in three-spined stickleback exposed to near-future CO 2. Conserv Physiol 2016; 4:cow068. [PMID: 28066553 PMCID: PMC5196030 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cow068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Change in the activity of the main inhibitory receptor, GABAA, has been suggested to be a general mechanism behind the behavioural alterations reported in ocean acidification studies on fish. It has been proposed that regulatory acid-base mechanisms in response to high CO2 alter the neuronal Cl- and HCO3- gradients that are important for GABAA receptor function. Here, we report a comprehensive analysis of gene expression of GABAA receptor subunits and of genes involved in GABAergic transmission in the brain of fish exposed to near-future CO2. Altogether, 56 mRNA transcripts were quantified in brains of three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) kept in control pCO2 (333 ± 30 μatm CO2) or at high pCO2 levels (991 ± 57 μatm) for 43 days. The gene expression analysis included GABAA receptor subunits (α1-6, β1-3, γ1-3, δ, π and ρ1-3), enzymes and transporters involved in GABA metabolism (GAD1-2, GABAT and GAT1-3), GABAA receptor-associated proteins (GABARAP and GABARAPL), ion cotransporters (KCC1-4, NKCC1, ClC21-3, AE3 and NDAE) and carbonic anhydrase (CAII). Exposure to high CO2 had only minor effects on the expression of genes involved in GABAergic neurotransmission. There were significant increases in the mRNA levels of α family subunits of the GABAA receptor, with a more pronounced expression of α12, α3, α4 and α6b. No changes were detected in the expression of other GABAA subunits or in genes related to receptor turnover, GABA metabolism or ion transport. Although the minor changes seen for mRNA levels might reflect compensatory mechanisms in the high-CO2 conditions, these were apparently insufficient to restore normal neural function, because the behavioural changes persisted within the time frame studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriana Lai
- Section for Physiology and Cell Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Cathrine E Fagernes
- Section for Physiology and Cell Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Fredrik Jutfelt
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Göran E Nilsson
- Section for Physiology and Cell Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Norway
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20
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Magalhaes IS, D'Agostino D, Hohenlohe PA, MacColl ADC. The ecology of an adaptive radiation of three-spined stickleback from North Uist, Scotland. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:4319-36. [PMID: 27374399 PMCID: PMC5031221 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
There has been a large focus on the genetics of traits involved in adaptation, but knowledge of the environmental variables leading to adaptive changes is surprisingly poor. Combined use of environmental data with morphological and genomic data should allow us to understand the extent to which patterns of phenotypic and genetic diversity within a species can be explained by the structure of the environment. Here, we analyse the variation of populations of three‐spined stickleback from 27 freshwater lakes on North Uist, Scotland, that vary greatly in their environment, to understand how environmental and genetic constraints contribute to phenotypic divergence. We collected 35 individuals per population and 30 abiotic and biotic environmental parameters to characterize variation across lakes and analyse phenotype–environment associations. Additionally, we used RAD sequencing to estimate the genetic relationships among a subset of these populations. We found a large amount of phenotypic variation among populations, most prominently in armour and spine traits. Despite large variation in the abiotic environment, namely in ion composition, depth and dissolved organic Carbon, more phenotypic variation was explained by the biotic variables (presence of predators and density of predator and competitors), than by associated abiotic variables. Genetic structure among populations was partly geographic, with closer populations being more similar. Altogether, our results suggest that differences in body shape among stickleback populations are the result of both canalized genetic and plastic responses to environmental factors, which shape fish morphology in a predictable direction regardless of their genetic starting point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel S Magalhaes
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Daniele D'Agostino
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Paul A Hohenlohe
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Andrew D C MacColl
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
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21
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Santos R, Joyeux A, Palluel O, Palos-Ladeiro M, Besnard A, Blanchard C, Porcher JM, Bony S, Devaux A, Sanchez W. Characterization of a genotoxicity biomarker in three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.): Biotic variability and integration in a battery of biomarkers for environmental monitoring. Environ Toxicol 2016; 31:415-426. [PMID: 25346099 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 09/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
As a large array of hazardous substances exhibiting genotoxicity are discharged into surface water, this work aimed at assessing the relevance of adding a genotoxicity biomarker in a battery of biomarkers recently developed in the model fish three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). First the confounding influence of gender, body length, and season (used as a proxy of age and of the fish reproductive status, respectively) on the level of primary DNA damage in erythrocytes was investigated in wild sticklebacks. Then, the genotoxity biomarker was included in a large battery of biomarkers assessing xenobiotic biotransformation, oxidative stress and neurotoxicity, and implemented in five sites. Gender, age and reproductive status did not influence DNA damage level in fish from the reference site. A significant relationship between the level of primary DNA damage and fish length (as a proxy of age also correlated to the season) was highlighted in the contaminated site. Among all biomarkers investigated in the field, the level of DNA damage was one of the four most discriminating biomarkers with EROD, catalase activity and the level of lipid peroxidation representing together 75.40% of the discriminating power in sampled fish. The level of DNA damage was correlated to the EROD activity and to the level of peroxidation, which mainly discriminated fish from sites under urban pressure. Finally, Integrated Biomarker Response indexes (IBRv2), which were calculated with the whole biomarker response dataset exhibited higher values in the Reveillon (9.62), the Scarpe and Rhonelle contaminated sites (5.11 and 4.90) compared with the two reference sites (2.38 and 2.55). The present work highlights that integration of a genotoxicity biomarker in a multiparametric approach is relevant to assess ecotoxicological risk in freshwater aquatic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Santos
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Unité d'écotoxicologie in vitro et in vivo, BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil en Halatte, France
- Université de Lyon, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69100, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Aude Joyeux
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Unité d'écotoxicologie in vitro et in vivo, BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Olivier Palluel
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Unité d'écotoxicologie in vitro et in vivo, BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil en Halatte, France
- UMR-I 02 Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, INERIS, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, Université du Havre, France
| | - Mélissa Palos-Ladeiro
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Unité d'écotoxicologie in vitro et in vivo, BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil en Halatte, France
| | - Aurélien Besnard
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive (UMR 5175), Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Biogéographie et Ecologie des Vertébrés, campus CNRS, 1919 route de Mende, 34 293 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Christophe Blanchard
- Office National de l'Eau et des Milieux Aquatiques, Délégation Inter-Régionale Nord-Ouest, 60200, Compiègne, France
| | - Jean Marc Porcher
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Unité d'écotoxicologie in vitro et in vivo, BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil en Halatte, France
- UMR-I 02 Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, INERIS, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, Université du Havre, France
| | - Sylvie Bony
- Université de Lyon, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69100, Villeurbanne, France
- INRA, USC LEHNA 1369, ENTPE, F-69518, Vaulx en Velin, France
| | - Alain Devaux
- Université de Lyon, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69100, Villeurbanne, France
- INRA, USC LEHNA 1369, ENTPE, F-69518, Vaulx en Velin, France
| | - Wilfried Sanchez
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Unité d'écotoxicologie in vitro et in vivo, BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil en Halatte, France
- UMR-I 02 Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des milieux aquatiques, INERIS, Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, Université du Havre, France
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22
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Huang Y, Chain FJJ, Panchal M, Eizaguirre C, Kalbe M, Lenz TL, Samonte IE, Stoll M, Bornberg-Bauer E, Reusch TBH, Milinski M, Feulner PGD. Transcriptome profiling of immune tissues reveals habitat-specific gene expression between lake and river sticklebacks. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:943-58. [PMID: 26749022 PMCID: PMC4790908 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The observation of habitat-specific phenotypes suggests the action of natural selection. The three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) has repeatedly colonized and adapted to diverse freshwater habitats across the northern hemisphere since the last glaciation, while giving rise to recurring phenotypes associated with specific habitats. Parapatric lake and river populations of sticklebacks harbour distinct parasite communities, a factor proposed to contribute to adaptive differentiation between these ecotypes. However, little is known about the transcriptional response to the distinct parasite pressure of those fish in a natural setting. Here, we sampled wild-caught sticklebacks across four geographical locations from lake and river habitats differing in their parasite load. We compared gene expression profiles between lake and river populations using 77 whole-transcriptome libraries from two immune-relevant tissues, the head kidney and the spleen. Differential expression analyses revealed 139 genes with habitat-specific expression patterns across the sampled population pairs. Among the 139 differentially expressed genes, eight are annotated with an immune function and 42 have been identified as differentially expressed in previous experimental studies in which fish have been immune challenged. Together, these findings reinforce the hypothesis that parasites contribute to adaptation of sticklebacks in lake and river habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Huang
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany
| | - Frédéric J J Chain
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany.,Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1B1
| | - Mahesh Panchal
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany.,Bioinformatics Infrastructures for Life Sciences (BILS), Uppsala Biomedicinska Centrum (BMC), Husargatan 3, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden.,Institute of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala Biomedicinska Centrum (BMC), Husargatan 3, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christophe Eizaguirre
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, E1 4NS, London, UK
| | - Martin Kalbe
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany
| | - Tobias L Lenz
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany
| | - Irene E Samonte
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany
| | - Monika Stoll
- Institute of Human Genetics, Genetic Epidemiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Erich Bornberg-Bauer
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Westfälische Wilhelms University, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Thorsten B H Reusch
- Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Fishes, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Manfred Milinski
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany
| | - Philine G D Feulner
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306, Plön, Germany.,Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution, Eawag Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Center for Ecology, Evolution and Biogeochemistry, 6047, Kastanienbaum, Switzerland
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23
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Abstract
Animal personalities are ubiquitous across the animal kingdom and have been shown both to influence individual behaviour in the social context and to be affected by it. However, little attention has been paid to possible carryover effects of social conditions on personality expression, especially when individuals are alone. Here we investigated how the recent social context affected the boldness and repeatability of three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, during individual assays. We housed fish either solitarily, solitarily part of the time or socially in groups of four, and subjected them twice to a risk-taking task. The social conditions had a large effect on boldness repeatability, with fish housed solitarily before the trials showing much higher behavioural repeatability than fish housed socially, for which repeatability was not significant. Social conditions also had a temporal effect on the boldness of the fish, with only fish housed solitarily taking more risks during the first than the second trial. These results show that recent social conditions can thus affect the short-term repeatability of behaviour and obfuscate the expression of personality even in later contexts when individuals are alone. This finding highlights the need to consider social housing conditions when designing personality studies and emphasizes the important link between animal personality and the social context by showing the potential role of social carryover effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Andrea Manica
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
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24
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Abstract
In many animals, including humans, interactions with caring parents can have long-lasting effects on offspring sensitivity to stressors. However, whether these parental effects impact offspring fitness in nature is often unclear. In addition, despite evidence that maternal care can influence offspring behaviour via epigenetic alterations to the genome, it remains unclear whether paternal care has similar effects. Here, we show in three-spined sticklebacks, a fish in which fathers are the sole provider of offspring care, that the direct care provided by fathers affects offspring anxiety and the potential for epigenetic alterations to the offspring genome. We find that families are differentially vulnerable to early stress and fathers can compensate for this differential sensitivity with the quality of their care. This variation in paternal care is also linked to the expression in offspring brains of a DNA methyltransferase (Dnmt3a) responsible for de novo methylation. We show that these paternal effects are potentially adaptive and anxious offspring are unlikely to survive an encounter with a predator. By supplying offspring care, fathers reduce offspring anxiety thereby increasing the survival of their offspring-not in the traditional sense through resource provisioning but through an epigenetic effect on offspring behavioural development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie E McGhee
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Alison M Bell
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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25
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Byström P, Bergström U, Hjälten A, Ståhl S, Jonsson D, Olsson J. Declining coastal piscivore populations in the Baltic Sea: Where and when do sticklebacks matter? Ambio 2015; 44 Suppl 3:462-471. [PMID: 26022328 PMCID: PMC4447698 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-015-0665-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Intraguild predation interactions make fish communities prone to exhibit alternative stable states with either piscivore or prey fish dominance. In the Baltic Sea, local declines of coastal piscivores like perch (Perca fluviatilis) have been observed to coincide with high densities of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Mechanisms behind this shift between piscivore and stickleback dominance were studied both experimentally and in field. Results showed that predation by sticklebacks has a strong negative effect on perch larvae survival, but this effect rapidly decreases with increasing perch size, likely due to gape limitations and digestion constraints in sticklebacks. Large spatial and temporal variations in patterns of stickleback migration into perch spawning sites were observed. Whether or not high density of sticklebacks will cause declines in coastal piscivore populations is suggested to depend on the availability of spawning sites in which sticklebacks do not migrate into or arrive late in the reproduction season of coastal piscivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pär Byström
- />Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ulf Bergström
- />Department of Aquatic Resources, Institute of Coastal Research, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skolgatan 6, 742 42 Öregrund, Sweden
| | - Alexander Hjälten
- />Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sofie Ståhl
- />Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - David Jonsson
- />County Administrative Board of Västernorrland, 871 86 Härnösand, Sweden
| | - Jens Olsson
- />Department of Aquatic Resources, Institute of Coastal Research, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skolgatan 6, 742 42 Öregrund, Sweden
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26
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Jolles JW, Fleetwood-Wilson A, Nakayama S, Stumpe MC, Johnstone RA, Manica A. The role of social attraction and its link with boldness in the collective movements of three-spined sticklebacks. Anim Behav 2015; 99:147-153. [PMID: 25598543 PMCID: PMC4289919 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Social animals must time and coordinate their behaviour to ensure the benefits of grouping, resulting in collective movements and the potential emergence of leaders and followers. However, individuals often differ consistently from one another in how they cope with their environment, a phenomenon known as animal personality, which may affect how individuals use coordination rules and requiring them to compromise. Here we tracked the movements of pairs of three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, separated by a transparent partition that allowed them to observe and interact with one another in a context containing cover. Individuals differed consistently in their tendency to approach their partner's compartment during collective movements. The strength of this social attraction was positively correlated with the behavioural coordination between members of a pair but was negatively correlated with an individual's tendency to lead. Social attraction may form part of a broader behavioural syndrome as it was predicted by the boldness of an individual, measured in isolation prior to the observation of pairs, and by the boldness of the partner. We found that bolder fish, and those paired with bolder partners, tended to approach their partner's compartment less closely. These findings provide important insights into the mechanisms that govern the dynamics and functioning of social groups and the emergence and maintenance of consistent behavioural differences. We investigated social attraction during the collective behaviour of pairs of fish. Social attraction was positively correlated with better coordination in the pair. Individual leadership was negatively linked with social attraction. Greater boldness predicted lower social attraction, suggesting a behavioural syndrome. The boldness of the partner also influenced the tendency for social attraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolle W Jolles
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
| | | | - Shinnosuke Nakayama
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K. ; Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany ; Albrecht Daniel Thaer Institute of Agriculture and Horticulture, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Andrea Manica
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K
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27
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Kaufmann J, Lenz TL, Milinski M, Eizaguirre C. Experimental parasite infection reveals costs and benefits of paternal effects. Ecol Lett 2014; 17:1409-17. [PMID: 25168056 PMCID: PMC4282062 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Revised: 06/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Forces shaping an individual's phenotype are complex and include transgenerational effects. Despite low investment into reproduction, a father's environment and phenotype can shape its offspring's phenotype. Whether and when such paternal effects are adaptive, however, remains elusive. Using three-spined sticklebacks in controlled infection experiments, we show that sperm deficiencies in exposed males compared to their unexposed brothers functionally translated into reduced reproductive success in sperm competition trials. In non-competitive fertilisations, offspring of exposed males suffered significant costs of reduced hatching success and survival but they reached a higher body condition than their counterparts from unexposed fathers after experimental infection. Interestingly, those benefits of paternal infection did not result from increased resistance but from increased tolerance to the parasite. Altogether, these results demonstrate that parasite resistance and tolerance are shaped by processes involving both genetic and non-genetic inheritance and suggest a context-dependent adaptive value of paternal effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshka Kaufmann
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, 24306, Germany
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28
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Abstract
The trajectory of an animal's growth in early development has been shown to have long-term effects on a range of life-history traits. Although it is known that individual differences in behaviour may also be related to certain life-history traits, the linkage between early growth or development and individual variation in behaviour has received little attention. We used brief temperature manipulations, independent of food availability, to stimulate compensatory growth in juvenile three-spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus. Here, we examine how these manipulated growth trajectories affected the sexual responsiveness of the male fish at the time of sexual maturation, explore associations between reproductive behaviour and investment and lifespan and test whether the perceived time stress (until the onset of the breeding season) influenced such trade-offs. We found a negative impact of growth rate on sexual responsiveness: fish induced (by temperature manipulation) to grow slowest prior to the breeding season were consistently quickest to respond to the presence of a gravid female. This speed of sexual responsiveness was also positively correlated with the rate of development of sexual ornaments and time taken to build a nest. However, after controlling for effects of growth rate, those males that had the greatest sexual responsiveness to females had the shortest lifespan. Moreover, the time available to compensate in size before the onset of the breeding season (time stress) affected the magnitude of these effects. Our results demonstrate that developmental perturbations in early life can influence mating behaviour, with long-term effects on longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Who-Seung Lee
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, , Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK, Department of Biological Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, , Montréal, Québec, Canada , H3C 3P8, Canada Research Chair in Spatial Modelling and Biodiversity, Université du Québec à Montréal, , Montréal, Québec, Canada , H3C 3P8
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29
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Gao K, Brandt I, Goldstone JV, Jönsson ME. Cytochrome P450 1A, 1B, and 1C mRNA induction patterns in three-spined stickleback exposed to a transient and a persistent inducer. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2011; 154:42-55. [PMID: 21354474 PMCID: PMC3560405 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2011.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Revised: 02/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 1 (CYP1) mRNA induction patterns in three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) were explored for use in environmental monitoring of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonists. The cDNAs of stickleback CYP1A, CYP1B1, CYP1C1, and CYP1C2 were cloned and their basal and induced expression patterns were determined in the brain, gill, liver and kidney. Also, their induction time courses were compared after waterborne exposure to a transient (indigo) or a persistent (3,3',4,4',5-pentacholorbiphenyl PCB 126) AHR agonist. The cloned stickleback CYP1s exhibited a high amino acid sequence identity compared with their zebrafish orthologs and their constitutive tissue distribution patterns largely agreed with those reported in other species. PCB 126 (100 nM) induced different CYP1 expression patterns in the four tissues, suggesting tissue-specific regulation. Both indigo (1 nM) and PCB 126 (10 nM) induced a strong CYP1 expression in gills. However, while PCB 126 gave rise to a high and persistent induction in gills and liver, induction by indigo was transient in both organs. The number of putative dioxin response elements found in each CYP1 gene promoter roughly reflected the induction levels of the genes. The high responsiveness of CYP1A, CYP1B1, and CYP1C1 observed in several organs suggests that three-spined stickleback is suitable for monitoring of pollution with AHR agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Gao
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ingvar Brandt
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jared V. Goldstone
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Maria E. Jönsson
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 184712608; fax: +46 184716425.
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