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Seizure treatment with olfactory training: a preliminary trial. Neurol Sci 2022; 43:6901-6907. [DOI: 10.1007/s10072-022-06376-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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2
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Chee K, Razmara A, Geller AS, Harris WB, Restrepo D, Thompson JA, Kramer DR. The role of the piriform cortex in temporal lobe epilepsy: A current literature review. Front Neurol 2022; 13:1042887. [PMID: 36479052 PMCID: PMC9720270 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.1042887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common form of focal epilepsy and can have various detrimental consequences within many neurologic domains. Recent evidence suggests that the piriform cortex may also be implicated in seizure physiology. The piriform cortex is a primary component of the olfactory network and is located at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes, wrapping around the entorhinal sulcus. Similar to the hippocampus, it is a tri-layered allocortical structure, with connections to many adjacent regions including the orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, peri- and entorhinal cortices, and insula. Both animal and human studies have implicated the piriform cortex as a critical node in the temporal lobe epilepsy network. It has additionally been shown that resection of greater than half of the piriform cortex may significantly increase the odds of achieving seizure freedom. Laser interstitial thermal therapy has also been shown to be an effective treatment strategy with recent evidence hinting that ablation of the piriform cortex may be important for seizure control as well. We propose that sampling piriform cortex in intracranial stereoelectroencephalography (sEEG) procedures with the use of a temporal pole or amygdalar electrode would be beneficial for further understanding the role of the piriform cortex in temporal lobe epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keanu Chee
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Ashkaun Razmara
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Aaron S Geller
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - William B Harris
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Diego Restrepo
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - John A Thompson
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Daniel R Kramer
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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Numakura Y, Uemura R, Tanaka M, Izawa T, Yamate J, Kuramoto T, Kaneko T, Mashimo T, Yamamoto T, Serikawa T, Kuwamura M. PHF24 is expressed in the inhibitory interneurons in rats. Exp Anim 2021; 70:137-143. [PMID: 33115988 PMCID: PMC7887615 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.20-0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Noda epileptic rat (NER) is a mutant model for epilepsy that exhibits spontaneous generalized tonic-clonic seizure. Epileptogenesis of NER remains to be elucidated; but it is detected an insertion of an endogenous retrovirus sequence in intron 2 of the PHD finger protein 24 (Phf24) gene, encoding Gαi-interacting protein (GINIP). Phf24 is a strong candidate gene for epileptogenesis in NER. PHF24 modulates GABAB signaling through interacting with Gαi protein. To clarify the epileptogenesis of NER, we investigated a distribution of PHF24-expressing cells in the central nerve system (CNS). While broad expression of PHF24 was observed in the CNS, characteristic expression was noted in the periglomerular layer of the olfactory bulb and the lamina II of the spinal cord in the control rats. These cells showed co-expression with calbindin or calretinin, inhibitory interneuron markers. In the olfactory bulb, 15.6% and 41.2% of PHF24-positive neurons co-expressed calbindin and calretinin, respectively. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that PHF24 was located in the presynaptic terminals, synaptic membranes and cytoplasmic matrix of neuronal soma. Our data suggested PHF24 is expressed in the inhibitory interneurons and may play important roles in modulation of the GABAB signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Numakura
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58 Ourai-kita, Izumisano, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Risa Uemura
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58 Ourai-kita, Izumisano, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Miyuu Tanaka
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58 Ourai-kita, Izumisano, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Takeshi Izawa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58 Ourai-kita, Izumisano, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Jyoji Yamate
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58 Ourai-kita, Izumisano, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Takashi Kuramoto
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshidakonoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1737 Funako, Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0034, Japan
| | - Takehito Kaneko
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction and Development, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-35 Ueda, Morioka-shi, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Tomoji Mashimo
- Division of Animal Genetics, Laboratory Animal Research Center, Institute of Medical Science, the University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| | - Takashi Yamamoto
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
| | - Tadao Serikawa
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshidakonoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Mitsuru Kuwamura
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58 Ourai-kita, Izumisano, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
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4
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Delfino-Pereira P, Bertti-Dutra P, Del Vecchio F, de Oliveira JAC, Medeiros DDC, Cestari DM, Santos VR, Moraes MFD, Rosa JLG, Mendes EMAM, Garcia-Cairasco N. Behavioral and EEGraphic Characterization of the Anticonvulsant Effects of the Predator Odor (TMT) in the Amygdala Rapid Kindling, a Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Front Neurol 2020; 11:586724. [PMID: 33250852 PMCID: PMC7674931 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.586724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Clinical and experimental evidence indicates that olfactory stimulation modulates limbic seizures, either blocking or inducing ictal activity. Objective: We aim to evaluate the behavioral and electroencephalographic (EEGraphic) effects of dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline (TMT) olfactory exposure on limbic seizures induced by amygdala rapid kindling (ARK). Materials and Methods: Wistar male rats (280–300 g) underwent stereotaxic surgery for electrode implantation in piriform cortex (PC), hippocampal formation (HIP), and amygdaloid complex (AMYG). Part of the animals was exposed to a saturated chamber with water or TMT, while others had ARK and olfactory exposure prior to the 21st stimulus. Behavioral responses were measured by traditional seizure severity scales (Racine and Pinel and Rovner) and/or by sequential analysis/neuroethology. The electrographic activity of epileptogenic limbic networks was quantified by the occurrence of the first and second EEG afterdischarges, comparing the 1st and 21st stimulus. The spectral analysis [Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)] of the first afterdischarge was performed at the 21st stimulus. Results: TMT olfactory exposure reduced the seizure severity in kindled rats, altering the displayed behavioral sequence. Moreover, TMT decreased the occurrence of first and second afterdischarges, at the 21st stimulus, and altered the spectral features. Conclusions: Both behavioral and EEGraphic evaluations indicated that TMT, a potent molecule with strong biological relevance, in fact, “predator odor,” suppressed the epileptiform activity in limbic networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polianna Delfino-Pereira
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavioral Sciences, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Poliana Bertti-Dutra
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavioral Sciences, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Flávio Del Vecchio
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - José A Cortes de Oliveira
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Daniel de Castro Medeiros
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Science Physiology and Biophysics, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.,Electrical Engineering Graduate Program, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Daniel M Cestari
- Department of Computer Science, Institute of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Victor R Santos
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Science Physiology and Biophysics, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marcio F D Moraes
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Science Physiology and Biophysics, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - João L G Rosa
- Department of Computer Science, Institute of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Eduardo M A M Mendes
- Electrical Engineering Graduate Program, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Norberto Garcia-Cairasco
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavioral Sciences, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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Abstract
Axons from the olfactory bulb (OB) project to multiple central structures of the brain, many of which, in turn, send axons back into the OB and/or to one another. These secondary sensory regions underlie many aspects of odor representation, valence, and learning, as well as serving some nonolfactory functions, though many details remain unclear. We here describe the connectivity and essential structural and functional properties of these postbulbar olfactory regions in the mammalian brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Cleland
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States.
| | - Christiane Linster
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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Delfino-Pereira P, Berti Dutra P, Cortes de Oliveira JA, Casanova Turatti IC, Fernandes A, Peporine Lopes N, Garcia-Cairasco N. Are Predator Smell (TMT)-Induced Behavioral Alterations in Rats Able to Inhibit Seizures? Chem Senses 2020; 45:347-357. [DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjaa023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
We aimed to evaluate the chemical and behavioral effects of 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline (TMT) after olfactory exposure and to verify their influence in the expression of acute audiogenic seizures in the Wistar Audiogenic Rat (WAR) strain. PROTOCOL 1: TMT gas chromatography was applied to define odor saturation in a chamber to different concentrations, time required for saturation and desaturation, and if saturation was homogeneous. Also, male Adult Wistar rats were exposed to saline (SAL) or to different TMT concentrations and their behaviors were evaluated (neuroethology). PROTOCOL 2: Male adult WARs were exposed for 15 s to SAL or TMT, followed by sound stimulation for 1 min or until tonic–clonic convulsion. Behavioral analysis included latencies (wild running and tonic–clonic convulsion), seizure severity indexes, and neuroethology. Gas chromatography established a saturation homogeneous to different concentrations of TMT, indicating that saturation and desaturation occurred in 30 min. TMT triggered fear-like or aversion-like reactions associated with reduction in motor activity and in grooming behavior, in the 2 highest concentrations. Pure TMT presented anticonvulsant properties, such as less-severe seizure phenotype, as well as a decrease in tonic–clonic convulsion expression. TMT elicited fear-like or aversion-like behaviors in Wistar and WAR and can be utilized in a quantifiable and controllable way. Our results suggested possible antagonism between “fear-related” or “aversion-related” and “seizure-related” networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polianna Delfino-Pereira
- Neurosciences and Behavioral Sciences Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Poliana Berti Dutra
- Neurosciences and Behavioral Sciences Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Physiology Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Izabel Cristina Casanova Turatti
- Physics and Chemistry Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Artur Fernandes
- Physiology Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Norberto Peporine Lopes
- Physics and Chemistry Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Norberto Garcia-Cairasco
- Neurosciences and Behavioral Sciences Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Physiology Departament, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Khurshid K, Crow AJD, Rupert PE, Minniti NL, Carswell MA, Mechanic-Hamilton DJ, Kamath V, Doty RL, Moberg PJ, Roalf DR. A Quantitative Meta-analysis of Olfactory Dysfunction in Epilepsy. Neuropsychol Rev 2019; 29:328-337. [PMID: 31144106 PMCID: PMC6766414 DOI: 10.1007/s11065-019-09406-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory dysfunction in epilepsy is well-documented in several olfactory domains. However, the clinical specificity of these deficits remains unknown. The aim of this systematic meta-analysis was to determine which domains of olfactory ability were most impaired in individuals with epilepsy, and to assess moderating factors affecting olfactory ability. Extant peer-reviewed literature on olfaction in epilepsy were identified via a computerized literature search using PubMed, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, and Google Scholar databases. Twenty-one articles met inclusion criteria. These studies included a total of 912 patients with epilepsy and 794 healthy comparison subjects. Included studies measured olfaction using tests of odor identification, discrimination, memory, and detection threshold in patients with different types of epilepsy, including temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), mixed frontal epilepsy (M-F), and mixed epilepsy (MIX). Olfactory deficits were robust in patients with epilepsy when compared to healthy individuals, with effect sizes in the moderate to large range for several olfactory domains, including odor identification (d = -1.59), memory (d = -1.10), discrimination (d = -1.04), and detection threshold (d = -0.58). Olfactory deficits were most prominent in patients with TLE and M-F epilepsy. Amongst patients with epilepsy, sex, age, smoking status, education, handedness, and age of illness onset were significantly related to olfactory performance. Overall, these meta-analytic findings indicate that the olfactory system is compromised in epilepsy and suggest that detailed neurobiological investigations of the olfactory system may provide further insight into this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Khurshid
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Andrew J D Crow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Petra E Rupert
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nancy L Minniti
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Temple University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Dawn J Mechanic-Hamilton
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Vidyulata Kamath
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Richard L Doty
- Smell & Taste Center, Department of Otorhinolaryngology: Head & Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Paul J Moberg
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Smell & Taste Center, Department of Otorhinolaryngology: Head & Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David R Roalf
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Aguilar Martínez N, Aguado Carrillo G, Saucedo Alvarado P, Mendoza García C, Velasco Monroy A, Velasco Campos F. Clinical importance of olfactory function in neurodegenerative diseases. REVISTA MÉDICA DEL HOSPITAL GENERAL DE MÉXICO 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hgmx.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Jiang Y, Pun RYK, Peariso K, Holland KD, Lian Q, Danzer SC. Olfactory Bulbectomy Leads to the Development of Epilepsy in Mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138178. [PMID: 26368332 PMCID: PMC4569065 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a clear link between epilepsy and depression. Clinical data demonstrate a 30-35% lifetime prevalence of depression in patients with epilepsy, and patients diagnosed with depression have a three to sevenfold higher risk of developing epilepsy. Traditional epilepsy models partially replicate the clinical observations, with the demonstration of depressive traits in epileptic animals. Studies assessing pro-epileptogenic changes in models of depression, however, are more limited. Here, we examined whether a traditional rodent depression model--bilateral olfactory bulbectomy--predisposes the animals towards the development of epilepsy. Past studies have demonstrated increased neuronal excitability after bulbectomy, but continuous seizure monitoring had not been conducted. For the present study, we monitored control and bulbectomized animals by video-EEG 24/7 for approximately two weeks following the surgery to determine whether they develop spontaneous seizures. All seven bulbectomized mice exhibited seizures during the monitoring period. Seizures began about one week after surgery, and occurred in clusters with severity increasing over the monitoring period. These results suggest that olfactory bulbectomy could be a useful model of TBI-induced epilepsy, with advantages of relatively rapid seizure onset and a high number of individuals developing the disease. The model may also be useful for investigating the mechanisms underlying the bidirectional relationship between epilepsy and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifei Jiang
- Department of Anesthesia, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Department of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Raymund Y. K. Pun
- Department of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Katrina Peariso
- Division of Neurocritical Care, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Katherine D. Holland
- Department of Neurology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Qingquan Lian
- Department of Anesthesia, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Steve C. Danzer
- Department of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
- Departments of Anesthesia and Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
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Domoic acid epileptic disease. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:1185-207. [PMID: 24663110 PMCID: PMC3967204 DOI: 10.3390/md12031185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Domoic acid epileptic disease is characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures weeks to months after domoic acid exposure. The potential for this disease was first recognized in a human case study of temporal lobe epilepsy after the 1987 amnesic shellfish-poisoning event in Quebec, and was characterized as a chronic epileptic syndrome in California sea lions through investigation of a series of domoic acid poisoning cases between 1998 and 2006. The sea lion study provided a breadth of insight into clinical presentations, unusual behaviors, brain pathology, and epidemiology. A rat model that replicates key observations of the chronic epileptic syndrome in sea lions has been applied to identify the progression of the epileptic disease state, its relationship to behavioral manifestations, and to define the neural systems involved in these behavioral disorders. Here, we present the concept of domoic acid epileptic disease as a delayed manifestation of domoic acid poisoning and review the state of knowledge for this disease state in affected humans and sea lions. We discuss causative mechanisms and neural underpinnings of disease maturation revealed by the rat model to present the concept for olfactory origin of an epileptic disease; triggered in dendodendritic synapases of the olfactory bulb and maturing in the olfactory cortex. We conclude with updated information on populations at risk, medical diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.
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