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Li J, Qi H, Chen Y, Zhu X. Epilepsy and demyelination: Towards a bidirectional relationship. Prog Neurobiol 2024; 234:102588. [PMID: 38378072 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2024.102588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Demyelination stands out as a prominent feature in individuals with specific types of epilepsy. Concurrently, individuals with demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS) are at a greater risk of developing epilepsy compared to non-MS individuals. These bidirectional connections raise the question of whether both pathological conditions share common pathogenic mechanisms. This review focuses on the reciprocal relationship between epilepsy and demyelination diseases. We commence with an overview of the neurological basis of epilepsy and demyelination diseases, followed by an exploration of how our comprehension of these two disorders has evolved in tandem. Additionally, we discuss the potential pathogenic mechanisms contributing to the interactive relationship between these two diseases. A more nuanced understanding of the interplay between epilepsy and demyelination diseases has the potential to unveiling the molecular intricacies of their pathological relationships, paving the way for innovative directions in future clinical management and treatment strategies for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Clinical Medicine, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Honggang Qi
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuzhou Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Clinical Medicine, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xinjian Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
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Holmes GL. Commentary on the Paper "Effect of Seizures on the Developing Brain and Cognition". Semin Pediatr Neurol 2023; 47:101080. [PMID: 37919042 DOI: 10.1016/j.spen.2023.101080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
EFFECT OF SEIZURES ON THE DEVELOPING BRAIN AND COGNITION Gregory L. Holmes Seminars in Pediatric Neurology Volume 23, Issue 2, May 2016, Pages 120-126 Epilepsy is a complex disorder, which involves much more than seizures, encompassing a range of associated comorbid health conditions that can have significant health and quality-of-life implications. Of these comorbidities, cognitive impairment is one of the most common and distressing aspects of epilepsy. Clinical studies have demonstrated that refractory seizures, resistant to antiepileptic drugs, occurring early in life have significant adverse effects on cognitive function. Much of what has been learned about the neurobiological underpinnings of cognitive impairment following early-life seizures has come from animal models. While early-life seizures in rodents do not result in cell loss, seizures do result in changes in neurogenesis and synaptogenesis and alteration of excitatory/inhibitory balance, network connectivity and temporal coding. These morphological and physiological changes are accompanied by parallel impairment in cognitive skills. This increased understanding of the pathophysiological basis of seizure-induced cognitive deficits should allow investigators to develop novel targets for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT.
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Velasquez F, Dickson C, Kloc ML, Schneur CA, Barry JM, Holmes GL. Optogenetic modulation of hippocampal oscillations ameliorates spatial cognition and hippocampal dysrhythmia following early-life seizures. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 178:106021. [PMID: 36720444 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing human and animal evidence that brain oscillations play a critical role in the development of spatial cognition. In rat pups, disruption of hippocampal rhythms via optogenetic stimulation during the critical period for memory development impairs spatial cognition. Early-life seizures are associated with long-term deficits in spatial cognition and aberrant hippocampal oscillatory activity. Here we asked whether modulation of hippocampal rhythms following early-life seizures can reverse or improve hippocampal connectivity and spatial cognition. We used optogenetic stimulation of the medial septum to induce physiological 7 Hz theta oscillations in the hippocampus during the critical period of spatial cognition following early-life seizures. Optogenetic stimulation of the medial septum in control and rats subjected to early-life seizures resulted in precisely regulated frequency-matched hippocampal oscillations. Rat pups receiving active blue light stimulation performed better than the rats receiving inert yellow light in a test of spatial cognition. The improvement in spatial cognition in these rats was associated with a faster theta frequency and higher theta power, coherence and phase locking value in the hippocampus than rats with early-life seizures receiving inert yellow light. These findings indicate that following early life seizures, modification of hippocampal rhythms may be a potential novel therapeutic modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Velasquez
- Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont, Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Conor Dickson
- Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont, Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Michelle L Kloc
- Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont, Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Carmel A Schneur
- Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont, Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Jeremy M Barry
- Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont, Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Gregory L Holmes
- Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont, Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA.
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Kloc ML, Marchand DH, Holmes GL, Pressman RD, Barry JM. Cognitive impairment following experimental febrile seizures is determined by sex and seizure duration. Epilepsy Behav 2022; 126:108430. [PMID: 34902661 PMCID: PMC8748413 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2021.108430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Febrile seizures are the most common type of seizures in children. While in most children the outcome is favorable, children with febrile status epilepticus may exhibit modest cognitive impairment. Whether children with other forms of complex febrile seizure, such as repetitive febrile seizures within the same illness are at risk of cognitive deficits is not known. In this study, we used a well-established model of experimental febrile seizures in rat pups to compare the effects of febrile status epilepticus and recurrent febrile seizures on subsequent spatial cognition and anxiety. METHODS Male and female rat pups were subjected to hyperthermic seizures at postnatal day 10 and were divided into groups of rats with continuous seizures for ≥40 min or recurrent febrile seizures. They were then tested as adults in the active avoidance and spatial accuracy tests to assess spatial learning and memory and the elevated plus maze to measure anxiety. RESULTS Febrile status epilepticus rats demonstrated impaired spatial cognition in active avoidance and spatial accuracy and exhibited reduced anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze. Rats with recurrent febrile seizures did not differ significantly from the controls on any measures. There were also significant sex-related differences with females with FSE performing far better than males with FSE in active avoidance but demonstrating a navigational learning impairment relative to CTL females in spatial accuracy. However, once learned, females with FSE performed the spatial accuracy task as well as CTL females. CONCLUSION There is a duration-dependent effect of febrile seizures on subsequent cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Febrile status epilepticus resulted in spatial cognitive deficits and reduced anxiety-related behaviors whereas rats with recurrent febrile seizures did not differ from controls. Sex had a remarkable effect on spatial cognitive outcome where males with FSE fared worse than females with FSE. The results demonstrate that sex should be considered as a biological variable in studies evaluating the effects of seizures on the developing brain.
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Niedecker RW, Kloc ML, Holmes GL, Barry JM. Effects of early life seizures on coordination of hippocampal-prefrontal networks: Influence of sex and dynamic brain states. Epilepsia 2021; 62:1701-1714. [PMID: 34002378 PMCID: PMC8260466 DOI: 10.1111/epi.16927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Early life seizures (ELSs) alter activity-dependent maturation of neuronal circuits underlying learning and memory. The pathophysiological mechanisms underpinning seizure-induced cognitive impairment are not fully understood, and critical variables such as sex and dynamic brain states with regard to cognitive outcomes have not been explored. We hypothesized that in comparison to control (CTL) rats, ELS rats would exhibit deficits in spatial cognition correlating with impaired dynamic neural signal coordination between the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). METHODS Male and female rat pups were given 50 flurothyl-induced seizures over 10 days starting at postnatal Day 15. As adults, spatial cognition was tested through active avoidance on a rotating arena. Microwire tetrodes were implanted in the mPFC and CA1 subfield. Single cells and local field potentials were recorded and analyzed in each region during active avoidance and sleep. RESULTS ELS males exhibited avoidance impairments, whereas female rats were unaffected. During avoidance, hippocampus-mPFC coherence was higher in CTL females than CTL males across bandwidths. In comparison to CTL males, ELS male learners exhibit increased coherence within theta bandwidth as well as altered burst-timing in mPFC cell activity. Hippocampus-mPFC coherence levels are predictive of cognitive outcome in the active avoidance spatial task. SIGNIFICANCE Spatial cognitive outcome post-ELS is sex-dependent, as females fare better than males. ELS males that learn the task exhibit increased mPFC coherence levels at low-theta frequency, which may compensate for ELS effects on mPFC cell timing. These results suggest that coherence may serve as a biomarker for spatial cognitive outcome post-ELS and emphasize the significance of analyzing sex and dynamic cognition as variables in understanding seizure effects on the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys W Niedecker
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Michelle L Kloc
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Jeremy M Barry
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Epilepsy Development and Cognition Group, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
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On the merits of non-invasive myelin imaging in epilepsy, a literature review. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 338:108687. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Comorbidities of early-onset temporal epilepsy: Cognitive, social, emotional, and morphologic dimensions. Exp Neurol 2019; 320:113005. [PMID: 31278943 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.113005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Epilepsy, the most common neurologic disorder in childhood, is associated with a subset of psychiatric dysfunctions, including cognitive deficits, and alterations in emotionality (e.g., anxiety and depression) and social functioning. In the present study, we evaluated an integrative set of behavioral responses, including cognitive/socio-cognitive and emotional dimensions, using a number of behavioral paradigms in the LiCl/pilocarpine model of status epilepticus (SE) in rats. The aims of the study were to examine whether SE affects: 1) non-associative learning (habituation of exploratory behavior); 2) investigatory response to an indifferent stimulus object; 3) sociability/social novelty preference; 4) social recognition or discrimination; and 4) short- and long-term memory in the Morris water maze (MWM). Finally, we investigated the morphology of key brain structures involved in the examined behavioral dysfunctions. SE did not affect habituation to an open-field arena in juvenile (P25), adolescent (P32), or adult (P80) rats. SE rats spent less time in the central part of the arena. SE adolescent rats (P32) displayed a higher number of rearings with a shorter duration. SE rats displayed a markedly attenuated investigatory response to an indifferent stimulus object. SE rats in all age groups demonstrated pronounced deficits in sociability and the preference for social novelty. In addition, SE rats spent a reduced amount of time investigating a juvenile rat upon first exposure. After 30 min re-exposure together with an additional, novel juvenile, the SE rats spent equal time investigating both juveniles. In the MWM task, acquisition was unimpaired but there was a deficit in delayed memory retention after 10 days. SE did not affect cognitive flexibility expressed by reversal learning. Together, these findings suggest that early-life SE leads to alterations in emotional/anxiety-related behavior and affects sociability/preference for social novelty and social discrimination. Early-life SE did not alter acquisition of spatial learning, but it impaired delayed retention. Using Fluoro Jade B staining performed 24 h after SE revealed apparent neurodegeneration in the dorsal hippocampus, mediodorsal thalamic nucleus and medial amygdala, brain areas that are critically involved in network underlying emotional behavior and cognitive functions.
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Baram TZ, Donato F, Holmes GL. Construction and disruption of spatial memory networks during development. Learn Mem 2019; 26:206-218. [PMID: 31209115 PMCID: PMC6581006 DOI: 10.1101/lm.049239.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Spatial memory, the aspect of memory involving encoding and retrieval of information regarding one's environment and spatial orientation, is a complex biological function incorporating multiple neuronal networks. Hippocampus-dependent spatial memory is not innate and emerges during development in both humans and rodents. In children, nonhippocampal dependent egocentric (self-to-object) memory develops before hippocampal-dependent allocentric (object-to-object) memory. The onset of allocentric spatial memory abilities in children around 22 mo of age occurs at an age-equivalent time in rodents when spatially tuned grid and place cells arise from patterned activity propagating through the entorhinal-hippocampal circuit. Neuronal activity, often driven by specific sensory signals, is critical for the normal maturation of brain circuits This patterned activity fine-tunes synaptic connectivity of the network and drives the emergence of specific firing necessary for spatial memory. Whereas normal activity patterns are required for circuit maturation, aberrant neuronal activity during development can have major adverse consequences, disrupting the development of spatial memory. Seizures during infancy, involving massive bursts of synchronized network activity, result in impaired spatial memory when animals are tested as adolescents or adults. This impaired spatial memory is accompanied by alterations in spatial and temporal coding of place cells. The molecular mechanisms by which early-life seizures lead to disruptions at the cellular and network levels are now becoming better understood, and provide a target for intervention, potentially leading to improved cognitive outcome in individuals experiencing early-life seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tallie Z Baram
- Department of Anatomy/Neurobiology, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Flavio Donato
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience and Centre for Neural Computation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 7491, Norway
- Biozentrum, Department of Cell Biology, University of Basel 4056, Switzerland
| | - Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05401, USA
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Salgueiro-Pereira AR, Duprat F, Pousinha PA, Loucif A, Douchamps V, Regondi C, Ayrault M, Eugie M, Stunault MI, Escayg A, Goutagny R, Gnatkovsky V, Frassoni C, Marie H, Bethus I, Mantegazza M. A two-hit story: Seizures and genetic mutation interaction sets phenotype severity in SCN1A epilepsies. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 125:31-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
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Barbosa GHL, Batista SP, Dos Santos PB, Thomaz CRC, Scorza FA, Cysneiros RM. Single neonatal status epilepticus does not impair cognitive function in rats. Epilepsy Behav 2017. [PMID: 28624510 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2017.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Geraldo H L Barbosa
- Developmental Disabilities Graduate Program, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Samuel P Batista
- Developmental Disabilities Graduate Program, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Pedro B Dos Santos
- Developmental Disabilities Graduate Program, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cássia R C Thomaz
- Developmental Disabilities Graduate Program, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fulvio A Scorza
- Experimental Neurology, Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Roberta M Cysneiros
- Developmental Disabilities Graduate Program, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Patterson KP, Barry JM, Curran MM, Singh-Taylor A, Brennan G, Rismanchi N, Page M, Noam Y, Holmes GL, Baram TZ. Enduring Memory Impairments Provoked by Developmental Febrile Seizures Are Mediated by Functional and Structural Effects of Neuronal Restrictive Silencing Factor. J Neurosci 2017; 37:3799-3812. [PMID: 28275159 PMCID: PMC5394897 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3748-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In a subset of children experiencing prolonged febrile seizures (FSs), the most common type of childhood seizures, cognitive outcomes are compromised. However, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here we identified significant, enduring spatial memory problems in male rats following experimental prolonged FS (febrile status epilepticus; eFSE). Remarkably, these deficits were abolished by transient, post hoc interference with the chromatin binding of the transcriptional repressor neuron restrictive silencing factor (NRSF or REST). This transcriptional regulator is known to contribute to neuronal differentiation during development and to programmed gene expression in mature neurons. The mechanisms of the eFSE-provoked memory problems involved complex disruption of memory-related hippocampal oscillations recorded from CA1, likely resulting in part from impairments of dendritic filtering of cortical inputs as well as abnormal synaptic function. Accordingly, eFSE provoked region-specific dendritic loss in the hippocampus, and aberrant generation of excitatory synapses in dentate gyrus granule cells. Blocking NRSF transiently after eFSE prevented granule cell dysmaturation, restored a functional balance of γ-band network oscillations, and allowed treated eFSE rats to encode and retrieve spatial memories. Together, these studies provide novel insights into developing networks that underlie memory, the mechanisms by which early-life seizures influence them, and the means to abrogate the ensuing cognitive problems.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Whereas seizures have been the central focus of epilepsy research, they are commonly accompanied by cognitive problems, including memory impairments that contribute to poor quality of life. These deficits often arise before the onset of spontaneous seizures, or independent from them, yet the mechanisms involved are unclear. Here, using a rodent model of common developmental seizures that provoke epilepsy in a subset of individuals, we identify serious consequent memory problems. We uncover molecular, cellular, and circuit-level mechanisms that underlie these deficits and successfully abolish them by targeted therapeutic interventions. These findings may be important for understanding and preventing cognitive problems in individuals suffering long febrile seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeremy M Barry
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | | | | | - Gary Brennan
- Departments of Anatomy/Neurobiology
- Pediatrics, and
| | | | - Matias Page
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | | | - Gregory L Holmes
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | - Tallie Z Baram
- Departments of Anatomy/Neurobiology,
- Pediatrics, and
- Neurology, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-4475, and
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Jin X, Li T, Zhang L, Ma J, Yu L, Li C, Niu L. Environmental Enrichment Improves Spatial Learning and Memory in Vascular Dementia Rats with Activation of Wnt/β-Catenin Signal Pathway. Med Sci Monit 2017; 23:207-215. [PMID: 28082734 PMCID: PMC5253348 DOI: 10.12659/msm.902728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Environmental enrichment (EE) has a beneficial effect on some neuropsychiatric disorders. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether environmental enrichment could improve the spatial learning and memory in rats with vascular dementia (VaD) and the mechanism underpinning it. Material/Methods Bilateral common carotid occlusion (2-vessel occlusion [2VO]) was used to develop the animal model of vascular dementia. Adult male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were used in the experiment and were randomly divided into 4 groups: sham group, 2VO group, sham+EE group, and 2VO+EE group (n=19/group). The 2VO group and 2VO+EE group underwent bilateral common carotid occlusion. Two different housing conditions were used in this experiment: standard environment (SE) and enriched environment (EE). Rats in the sham group and 2VO group were put into SE cages for 4 weeks, while rats in the sham+EE group and 2VO+EE group were put in EE cages for 4 weeks. The Morris water maze and Y-maze were used to assess spatial learning and memory. Apoptosis was detected by TUNEL. The damage of neurons in the hippocampus was assessed by Nissl staining. The level of wnt pathway proteins were detected by Western blot. Results Compared with the 2VO group, the rats in the 2VO+EE group had better behavioral performance, fewer apoptotic neurons, and more surviving neurons. Western blot analysis showed that the levels of wnt pathway proteins were higher in 2VO+EE rats than in the 2VO group. Conclusions Environmental enrichment can improve the spatial learning and memory in rats with vascular dementia, and the mechanism may be related to activation of the wnt/β-catenin signal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhao Jin
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Orthopedics, The General Hospital of Chonggang, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Lina Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Jingxi Ma
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Lehua Yu
- Department of Rehabilitation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Changqing Li
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
| | - Lingchuan Niu
- Department of Rehabilitation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China (mainland)
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