Comparative profiling of ovarian and testicular piRNAs in the mud crab Scylla paramamosain

Whole transcriptome RNA sequencing provides novel insights into the molecular dynamics of ovarian development in mud crab, Scylla paramamosain after mating

Ovarian development in animals is a complicated biological process, requiring the simultaneous coordination among various genes and pathways. To understand the dynamic changes and molecular regulatory mechanisms of ovarian development in mud crab (Scylla paramamosain), both histological observation and whole transcriptome sequencing of ovarian tissues at different mating stages were implemented in this study. The histological results revealed that ovarian development was delayed in unmated females (60 days after courtship behavior but not mating), who exhibited an oocyte diameter of 56.38 ± 15.17 μm. Conversely, mated females exhibited accelerated the ovarian maturation process, with females reaching ovarian stage III (proliferative stage) 23 days after mating and attained an average oocyte diameter of 132.19 ± 15.07 μm. Thus, mating process is essential in promoting the rapid ovarian development in mud crab. Based on the whole transcriptome sequencing analysis, a total of 518 mRNAs, 1502 lncRNAs, 18 circRNAs and 151 miRNAs were identified to be differentially expressed between ovarian tissues at different mating stages. Notably, six differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with ovarian development were identified, including ovary development-related protein, red pigment concentrating hormone receptor, G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B3-like, lutropin-chorio gonadotropic hormone receptor, renin receptor, and SoxB2. More importantly, both DEGs and targets of differentially expressed non-coding RNAs (DEncRNAs) were enriched in renin-angiotensin system, TGF-β signaling, cell adhesion molecules, MAPK signaling pathway, and ECM-receptor interaction, suggesting that these pathways may play significant roles in the ovarian development of mud crabs. Moreover, competition endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks were constructed while mRNAs were differentially expressed between mating stages were involved in Gene Ontology (GO) biological processes such as developmental process, reproduction, and growth. These findings could provide solid foundations for the future development of female mud crab maturation enhancement strategy, and improve the understanding of the ovarian maturation process in crustaceans.

Optimizing reproductive performance in pangasius catfish broodstock: A review of dietary and molecular strategies

Pangasius catfish, a significant player in the global whitefish market, encounters challenges in aquaculture production sustainability. Quality broodstock maintenance and seed production are impeded by growth, maturation, and fecundity issues. This review investigates the efficacy of strategic nutrient composition and molecular strategies in enhancing broodstock conditions and reproductive performance across various fish species. A notable knowledge gap for Pangasius catfish hampers aquaculture progress. The review assesses nutrient manipulation's impact on reproductive physiology, emphasizing pangasius broodstock. A systematic review analysis following PRISMA guidelines was conducted to identify research trends and hotspots quantitatively, revealing a focus on P. bocourti and fertilization techniques. Addressing this gap, the review offers insights into dietary nutrients manipulation and genetic tool utilization for improved seed production, contributing to pangasius catfish aquaculture sustainability.

Structure and function of vasa gene in gonadal gametogenesis of Pacific abalone

Pacific abalone (Haliotis discus hannai) is a marine gastropod mollusc with significant economic importance in both global fisheries and aquaculture. However, studies exploring the gonadal development and regulatory mechanisms of Haliotis discus hannai are limited. This study aimed to explore whether the vasa gene acted as a molecular marker for germ cells. Initially, the vasa gene was successfully cloned using the cDNA-end rapid amplification technique. The cloned gene had a 2478-bp-long open reading frame and encoded 825 amino acids. Then, a recombinant expression vector was constructed based on the Vasa protein, and an 87-kDa recombinant protein was prepared. Subsequently, a polyclonal antibody was prepared using the purified recombinant protein. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) confirmed the titer of the antibody to be ≥512 K. The immunohistochemical analysis revealed that Vasa was widely expressed in oogonia, Stage I oocytes, spermatogonia, and primary spermatocytes. The specific expression of Vasa in the hermaphroditic gonads of abalone was assessed using western blotting to investigate the effects of different photoperiods (12 L:12D, 24 L:0D, 18 L:6D, and 6 L:18D) on the gonadal development of abalone (P < 0.05), with higher expression levels observed in the ovarian proliferative and spermary maturing stages compared with other developmental stages (P < 0.05). Additionally, Vasa exhibited the highest expression in the spermary and ovary under a photoperiod of 18 L:6D (P < 0.05). These data demonstrated the key role of Vasa in developing germ cells in abalone. They shed light upon the molecular mechanism through which the photoperiod influenced Vasa expression and regulated gonadal development in abalone. The findings might provide theoretical references for analyzing the differentiation pattern of abalone germ cells and the genetic improvement and conservation of germplasm resources.

Ago4-piRNA complex is a key component of genomic immune system against transposon expression in Penaeus monodon

Argonaute proteins are key constituents of small RNA-guided regulatory pathways. In crustaceans, members of the AGO subfamily of Argonaute proteins that play vital roles in immune defense are well studied, while proteins of the PIWI subfamily are less established. PmAgo4 of the black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, though phylogenetically clustered with the AGO subfamily, has distinctive roles of the PIWI subfamily in safeguarding the genome from transposon invasion and controlling germ cell development. This study explored a molecular mechanism by which PmAgo4 regulates transposon expression in the shrimp germline. PmAgo4-associated small RNAs were co-immunoprecipitated from shrimp testis lysate using a PmAgo4-specific polyclonal antibody. RNA-seq revealed a majority of 26-27 nt long small RNAs in the PmAgo4-IP fraction suggesting that PmAgo4 is predominantly associated with piRNAs. Mapping of these piRNAs on nucleotide sequences of two gypsy and a mariner-like transposons of P. monodon suggested that most piRNAs were originated from the antisense strand of transposons. Suppression of PmAgo4 expression by a specific dsRNA elevated the expression levels of the three transposons while decreasing the levels of transposon-related piRNAs. Taken together, these results imply that PmAgo4 exerts its suppressive function on transposons by controlling the biogenesis of transposon-related piRNAs and thus, provides a defense mechanism against transposon invasion in shrimp germline cells.

Epigenetic Modulations for Prevention of Infectious Diseases in Shrimp Aquaculture

Aquaculture assumes a pivotal role in meeting the escalating global food demand, and shrimp farming, in particular, holds a significant role in the global economy and food security, providing a rich source of nutrients for human consumption. Nonetheless, the industry faces formidable challenges, primarily attributed to disease outbreaks and the diminishing efficacy of conventional disease management approaches, such as antibiotic usage. Consequently, there is an urgent imperative to explore alternative strategies to ensure the sustainability of the industry. In this context, the field of epigenetics emerges as a promising avenue for combating infectious diseases in shrimp aquaculture. Epigenetic modulations entail chemical alterations in DNA and proteins, orchestrating gene expression patterns without modifying the underlying DNA sequence through DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA molecules. Utilizing epigenetic mechanisms presents an opportunity to enhance immune gene expression and bolster disease resistance in shrimp, thereby contributing to disease management strategies and optimizing shrimp health and productivity. Additionally, the concept of epigenetic inheritability in marine animals holds immense potential for the future of the shrimp farming industry. To this end, this comprehensive review thoroughly explores the dynamics of epigenetic modulations in shrimp aquaculture, with a particular emphasis on its pivotal role in disease management. It conveys the significance of harnessing advantageous epigenetic changes to ensure the long-term viability of shrimp farming while deliberating on the potential consequences of these interventions. Overall, this appraisal highlights the promising trajectory of epigenetic applications, propelling the field toward strengthening sustainability in shrimp aquaculture.

Identification and Expression Analysis of Wnt2 Gene in the Sex Differentiation of the Chinese Soft-Shelled Turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis)

The Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) is an important freshwater aquaculture animal in China. The Wnt gene family plays important regulatory roles in the development and growth of mammals. However, the precise function of these family genes has not been well understood in the sex differentiation of Chinese soft-shelled turtles. Here, we cloned a member of the Wnt family, Wnt2, which obtained a 1077 bp open reading frame that encoded a 358-aa protein. The putative amino acid sequences of proteins are exceeded 80% identical to other turtles. The expression level of Wnt2 peaked at the 14th stage both in female and male embryos during the early gonadal differentiation period of Chinese soft-shelled turtles, which occurred before gonadal differentiation. Wnt2 mRNA was expressed at higher levels in the brains and gonads of mature P. sinensis females compared with those in mature males. Wnt agonists significantly affected the expression level of Wnt2 during the gonadal differentiation period. After Wnt agonists (1.0 μg/μL, 2.5 μg/μL, 5.0 μg/μL) treatment, the expression level of the Wnt2 generally appeared to have an inverted-V trend over time in female embryonic gonads. The results suggested that Wnt2 may participate in the regulation of gonad development in P. sinensis during the early embryonic stages. These results could provide a theoretical basis for the reproduction process of the Chinese soft-shelled turtle.

Transcriptome-Wide Characterization of piRNAs during the Developmental Process of European Honey-Bee Larval Guts

piRNAs play pivotal roles in maintaining genome stability, regulating gene expression, and modulating development and immunity. However, there are few piRNA-associated studies on honey-bees, and the regulatory role of piRNAs in the development of bee guts is largely unknown. Here, the differential expression pattern of piRNAs during the developmental process of the European honey-bee (Apis mellifera) larval guts was analyzed, followed by investigation of the regulatory network and the potential function of differentially expressed piRNAs (DEpiRNAs) in regulating gut development. A total of 843 piRNAs were identified in the larval guts of A. mellifera; among these, 764 piRNAs were shared by 4- (Am4 group), 5- (Am5 group), and 6-day-old (Am6 group) larval guts, while 11, 67, and one, respectively, were unique. The first base of piRNAs in each group had a cytosine (C) bias. Additionally, 61 up-regulated and 17 down-regulated piRNAs were identified in the “Am4 vs. Am5” comparison group, further targeting 9, 983 genes, which were involved in 50 GO terms and 142 pathways, while two up-regulated and five down-regulated piRNAs were detected in the “Am5 vs. Am6” comparison group, further targeting 1, 936 genes, which were engaged in 41 functional terms and 101 pathways. piR-ame-742536 and piR-ame-856650 in the “Am4 vs. Am5” comparison group as well as piR-ame-592661 and piR-ame-31653 in the “Am5 vs. Am6” comparison group were found to link to the highest number of targets. Further analysis indicated that targets of DEpiRNAs in these two comparison groups putatively regulate seven development-associated signaling pathways, seven immune-associated pathways, and three energy metabolism pathways. Moreover, the expression trends of five randomly selected DEpiRNAs were verified based on stem-loop RT-PCR and RT-qPCR. These results were suggestive of the overall alteration of piRNAs during the larval developmental process and demonstrated that DEpiRNAs potentially modulate development-, immune-, and energy metabolism-associated pathways by regulating the expression of corresponding genes via target binding, further affecting the development of A. mellifera larval guts. Our data offer a novel insight into the development of bee larval guts and lay a basis for clarifying the underlying mechanisms.

Transcriptome analysis revealed gene expression feminization of testis after exogenous tetrodotoxin administration in pufferfish Takifugu flavidus

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a deadly neurotoxin and usually accumulates in large amounts in the ovaries but is non-toxic or low toxic in the testis of pufferfish. The molecular mechanism underlying sexual dimorphism accumulation of TTX in ovary and testis, and the relationship between TTX accumulation with sex related genes expression remain largely unknown. The present study investigated the effects of exogenous TTX treatment on Takifugu flavidus. The results demonstrated that exogenous TTX administration significantly incresed level of TTX concentration in kidney, cholecyst, skin, liver, heart, muscle, ovary and testis of the treatment group (TG) than that of the control group (CG). Transcriptome sequencing and analysis were performed to study differential expression profiles of mRNA and piRNA after TTX administration of the ovary and testis. The results showed that compared with female control group (FCG) and male control group (MCG), TTX administration resulted in 80 and 23 piRNAs, 126 and 223 genes up and down regulated expression in female TTX-treated group (FTG), meanwhile, 286 and 223 piRNAs, 2 and 443 genes up and down regulated expression in male TTX-treated group (MTG). The female dominant genes cyp19a1, gdf9 and foxl2 were found to be up-regulated in MTG. The cyp19a1, whose corresponding target piRNA uniq_554482 was identified as down-regulated in the MTG, indicating the gene expression feminization in testis after exogenous TTX administration. The KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and piRNAs (DEpiRNAs) in MTG vs MCG group were more enriched in metabolism pathways, indicating that the testis produced more metabolic pathways in response to exogenous TTX, which might be a reason for the sexual dimorphism of TTX distribution in gonads. In addition, TdT-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling staining showed that significant apoptosis was detected in the MTG testis, and the role of the cell apoptotic pathways was further confirmed. Overall, our research revealed that the response of the ovary and testis to TTX administration was largely different, the ovary is more tolerant whereas the testis is more sensitive to TTX. These data will deepen our understanding on the accumulation of TTX sexual dimorphism in Takifugu.

Daphnia magna egg piRNA cluster expression profiles change as mothers age

BACKGROUND

PiRNAs prevent transposable elements wreaking havoc on the germline genome. Changes in piRNA expression over the lifetime of an individual may impact on ageing through continued suppression, or release, of transposable element expression. We identified piRNA producing clusters in the genome of Daphnia magna by a combination of bioinformatic methods, and then contrasted their expression between parthenogenetically produced eggs representing maternally-deposited germline piRNAs of young (having their 1st clutch) and old (having their 5th clutch) mothers. Results from eggs were compared to cluster expression in three generations of adults.

RESULTS

As for other arthropods, D. magna encodes long uni-directionally transcribed non-coding RNAs consisting of fragmented transposable elements which account for most piRNAs expressed. Egg tissues showed extensive differences between clutches from young mothers and those from old mothers, with 578 and 686 piRNA clusters upregulated, respectively. Most log fold-change differences for significant clusters were modest, however. When considering only highly expressed clusters, there was a bias towards 1st clutch eggs at 41 upregulated versus eight clusters in the eggs from older mothers. F0 generation differences between young and old mothers were fewer than eggs, as 179 clusters were up-regulated in young versus 170 old mothers. This dropped to 31 versus 22 piRNA clusters when comparing adults in the F1 generation, and no differences were detected in the F3 generation. Inter-generational losses of differential piRNA cluster were similar to that observed for D. magna micro-RNA expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Little overlap in differentially expressed clusters was found between adults containing mixed somatic and germline (ovary) tissues and germ-line representing eggs. A cluster encompassing a Tudor domain containing gene important in the piRNA pathway was upregulated in the eggs from old mothers. We hypothesise that regulation of this gene could form part of a feedback loop that reduces piRNA pathway activity explaining the reduced number of highly-expressed clusters in eggs from old mothers.

PIWI-interacting RNAs in human diseases: databases and computational models

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are short 21-35 nucleotide molecules that comprise the largest class of non-coding RNAs and found in a large diversity of species including yeast, worms, flies, plants and mammals including humans. The most well-understood function of piRNAs is to monitor and protect the genome from transposons particularly in germline cells. Recent data suggest that piRNAs may have additional functions in somatic cells although they are expressed there in far lower abundance. Compared with microRNAs (miRNAs), piRNAs have more limited bioinformatics resources available. This review collates 39 piRNA specific and non-specific databases and bioinformatics resources, describes and compares their utility and attributes and provides an overview of their place in the field. In addition, we review 33 computational models based upon function: piRNA prediction, transposon element and mRNA-related piRNA prediction, cluster prediction, signature detection, target prediction and disease association. Based on the collection of databases and computational models, we identify trends and potential gaps in tool development. We further analyze the breadth and depth of piRNA data available in public sources, their contribution to specific human diseases, particularly in cancer and neurodegenerative conditions, and highlight a few specific piRNAs that appear to be associated with these diseases. This briefing presents the most recent and comprehensive mapping of piRNA bioinformatics resources including databases, models and tools for disease associations to date. Such a mapping should facilitate and stimulate further research on piRNAs.

A comprehensive overview of ovarian small non-coding RNAs in the late overwintering and breeding periods of Onychostoma macrolepis

The development of the ovary of Onychostoma macrolepis undergoes distinct annual cyclic changes in which small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) could play vital roles. In this study, four sncRNA classes in the ovary, including miRNA, piRNAs, tsRNA, and rsRNAs, were systematically profiled by high-throughput sequencing. In adult ovaries of O. macrolepis, 247 miRNAs and 235 tsRNAs were identified as differentially expressing in the late overwintering period (in March) and breeding period (in June). Some up-regulated sncRNAs in March, such as miR-125-1 and tRFi-Lys-CTT-1, could be involved in inhibiting biomolecule metabolism and enhancing stress tolerance during the overwintering period. Compared with the level expression of sncRNAs in March, some sncRNAs were up-regulated in June, such as miR-146-1 and tRFi-Gly-GCC-1, and could be involved in influencing molecular synthesis and metabolism, enhancing oocyte proliferation and maturation, accelerating ovarian development, and increasing fertilization of oocytes by regulating related target mRNAs. The results suggested that sncRNAs in the ovary of Onychostoma macrolepis not only reflect characteristics of the fish's physiology at different developmental periods, but also directly affect ovarian development and oocyte maturation during the breeding period. In conclusion, these results significantly advance our understanding of the roles of sncRNA during overwintering and reproduction periods, and provide a novel perspective for uncovering characteristics of the special overwintering ecology and reproductive physiology of an atypical cavefish.

Whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing revealed the roles of chitin-related genes in the eyestalk abnormality of a novel mud crab hybrid (Scylla serrata ♀ × S. paramamosain ♂)

Chitin is a kind of insoluble structural polysaccharide and plays different roles in different species. In crustaceans, it forms the structural components in the exoskeleton. In our previous studies, novel mud crab hybrids have been produced from the interspecific hybridization of Scylla serrata ♀ × S. paramamosain ♂. Some of the hybrid crabs have been found to be morphologically (eyestalk) abnormal, but the genetic mechanism remains unknown. To address this question, we performed whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing on the control group (normal hybrids), abnormal hybrids, and S. paramamosain to uncover the genetic basis underlying this morphological abnormality. A total of 695 mRNAs, 10 miRNAs, 44 circRNAs, and 1957 lncRNAs were differentially expressed between normal and abnormal hybrids. Several differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with chitin and cuticle metabolism were identified, including chitin synthase, chitinase, chitin deacetylase, β-N-acetylglucosaminidase, β-1,4-endoglucanase, N-alpha-acetyltransferase, cuticle proprotein, early cuticle protein, and arthrodial cuticle protein. Functional analysis showed that DE miRNAs, DE circRNAs, DE lncRNAs, and lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA network were enriched in pathways related to the amino acid, carbohydrate, and glycogen metabolism. Considering the importance of the chitin and cuticle in exoskeleton formation, it can be concluded that the changes in the chitin and cuticle biosynthesis might have caused the eyestalk abnormality in hybrid crabs. These findings can lay the solid foundation for a better understanding of the important roles of chitin and cuticle related genes and the development of hybridization techniques in crustaceans.

A Review of Discovery Profiling of PIWI-Interacting RNAs and Their Diverse Functions in Metazoans

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) that perform crucial biological functions in metazoans and defend against transposable elements (TEs) in germ lines. Recently, ubiquitously expressed piRNAs were discovered in soma and germ lines using small RNA sequencing (sRNA-seq) in humans and animals, providing new insights into the diverse functions of piRNAs. However, the role of piRNAs has not yet been fully elucidated, and sRNA-seq studies continue to reveal different piRNA activities in the genome. In this review, we summarize a set of simplified processes for piRNA analysis in order to provide a useful guide for researchers to perform piRNA research suitable for their study objectives. These processes can help expand the functional research on piRNAs from previously reported sRNA-seq results in metazoans. Ubiquitously expressed piRNAs have been discovered in the soma and germ lines in Annelida, Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Crustacea, Arthropoda, and Mollusca, but they are limited to germ lines in Chordata. The roles of piRNAs in TE silencing, gene expression regulation, epigenetic regulation, embryonic development, immune response, and associated diseases will continue to be discovered via sRNA-seq.

Sex-Biased Gene Expression and Isoform Profile of Brine Shrimp Artemia franciscana by Transcriptome Analysis

Simple Summary

The brine shrimp Artemia is a promising model organism for ZW sex determination system, but the genes related to sex determination and differentiation of Artemia have not yet been examined in detail. In this study, the first isoform-level transcriptome sequencing was performed on female and male Artemia franciscana. By using PacBio Iso-Seq and Illumina RNA-Seq technologies, we found 39 candidate sex determination genes that showed sex-biased gene expression. The male-biased expressed genes included DMRT1 and Sad genes, which had three and seven isoforms, respectively. Among these, the Sad gene is an ecdysteroid biosynthetic pathway gene associated with arthropod molting and metamorphosis. We propose the importance and the necessity of further research on genes involved in ecdysteroid biosynthesis. These results will contribute to understand sex determination and differentiation of Artemia and other crustaceans having ZW systems.

Abstract

The brine shrimp Artemia has a ZW sex determination system with ZW chromosomes in females and ZZ chromosomes in males. Artemia has been considered a promising model organism for ZW sex-determining systems, but the genes involved in sex determination and differentiation of Artemia have not yet been identified. Here, we conducted transcriptome sequencing of female and male A. franciscana using PacBio Iso-Seq and Illumina RNA-Seq techniques to identify candidate sex determination genes. Among the 42,566 transcripts obtained from Iso-Seq, 23,514 were analyzed. Of these, 2065 (8.8%) were female specific, 2513 (10.7%) were male specific, and 18,936 (80.5%) were co-expressed in females and males. Based on GO enrichment analysis and expression values, we found 10 female-biased and 29 male-biased expressed genes, including DMRT1 and Sad genes showing male-biased expression. Our results showed that DMRT1 has three isoforms with five exons, while Sad has seven isoforms with 2–11 exons. The Sad gene is involved in ecdysteroid signaling related to molting and metamorphosis in arthropods. Further studies on ecdysteroid biosynthetic genes are needed to improve our understanding of Artemia sex determination. This study will provide a valuable resource for sex determination and differentiation studies on Artemia and other crustaceans with ZW systems.

Homologues of Piwi control transposable elements and development of male germline in Penaeus monodon

PIWI belongs to the Argonaute protein family, which is a major protein component in RNA silencing pathway. Piwi proteins play roles in the control of transposons and germline development. They have been widely studied in vertebrates and flies, while very little is known in crustacean so far. We have previously identified and characterized a cDNA encoding Piwi protein (PmPiwi1) in the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon. In this study, a cDNA encoding another Piwi protein namely PmPiwi2 was identified by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACEs). PmPiwi2 was expressed solely in shrimp testis and ovary, indicating its potential role in germ cell development. Similar to PmPiwi1, PmPiwi2 also plays a part in the control of transposons as PmPiwi2-knockdown shrimp showed a significant increase in the expression of gypsy2 retrotransposon and mariner element in the testis. In addition, a reduction of sperm numbers in the spermatophore of PmPiwi2-knockdown shrimp suggests that PmPiwi2 is required for spermatogenesis similar to PmPiwi1. This study further demonstrated that apoptotic cell death was strongly detected in spermatogonia and spermatocyte cells of both PmPiwi-knockdown shrimp and thus, could be the cause of reduced sperm count. Investigation of sperm morphology showed a remarkably high proportion of abnormal sperms in the spermatophore of the PmPiwi1-knockdown shrimp, while PmPiwi2-knockdown shrimp had comparable percentage of abnormal sperms to the control shrimp. Consistently, the expression of KIFC1, a gene that is necessary for spermiogenesis was significantly reduced upon PmPiwi1 silencing, but not in the PmPiwi2-knockdown shrimp. Our results suggested that while both PmPiwis are required for the development of spermatid, only PmPiwi1 is possibly involved in the final stage of sperm maturation.

Paternally-biased gene expression follows kin-selected predictions in female honey bee embryos

The Kinship Theory of Genomic Imprinting (KTGI) posits that, in species where females mate with multiple males, there is selection for a male to enhance the reproductive success of his offspring at the expense of other males and his mating partner. Reciprocal crosses between honey bee subspecies show parent-of-origin effects for reproductive traits, suggesting that males modify the expression of genes related to female function in their female offspring. This effect is likely to be greater in the Cape honey bee (Apis mellifera capensis), because a male's daughters have the unique ability to produce female offspring that can develop into reproductive workers or the next queen without mating. We generated reciprocal crosses between Capensis and another subspecies and used RNA-seq to identify transcripts that are over- or underexpressed in the embryos, depending on the parental origin of the gene. As predicted, 21 genes showed expression bias towards the Capensis father's allele in colonies with a Capensis father, with no such bias in the reciprocal cross. A further six genes showed a consistent bias towards expression of the father's allele across all eight colonies examined, regardless of the direction of the cross. Consistent with predictions of the KTGI, six of the 21 genes are associated with female reproduction. No gene consistently showed overexpression of the maternal allele.