Hormones and hibernation: possible links between hormone systems, winter energy balance and white-nose syndrome in bats

Adaptive Evolution of the Greater Horseshoe Bat AANAT: Insights into the Link between AANAT and Hibernation Rhythms

Arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) is a crucial rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of melatonin. AANAT has been confirmed to be independently duplicated and inactivated in different animal taxa in order to adapt to the environment. However, the evolutionary forces associated with having a single copy of AANAT remain unclear. The greater horseshoe bat has a single copy of AANAT but exhibits different hibernation rhythms in various populations. We analyzed the adaptive evolution at the gene and protein levels of AANAT from three distinct genetic lineages in China: northeast (NE), central east (CE), and southwest (SW). The results revealed greater genetic diversity in the AANAT loci of the NE and CE lineage populations that have longer hibernation times, and there were two positive selection loci. The catalytic capacity of AANAT in the Liaoning population that underwent positive selection was significantly higher than that of the Yunnan population (p < 0.05). This difference may be related to the lower proportion of α helix and the variation in two interface residues. The adaptive evolution of AANAT was significantly correlated with climate and environment (p < 0.05). After controlling for geographical factors (latitude and altitude), the evolution of AANAT by the negative temperature factor was represented by the monthly mean temperature (r = -0.6, p < 0.05). The results identified the gene level variation, functional adaptation, and evolutionary driving factors of AANAT, provide an important foundation for further understanding the adaptive evolution of the single copy of AANAT in pteropods, and may offer evidence for adaptive hibernation rhythms in bats.

How weather triggers the emergence of bats from their subterranean hibernacula

Hibernation is one of the most important behaviours of bats of the temperate zone. During winter, when little food or liquid water is available, hibernation in torpor lowers metabolic costs. However, the timing of emergence from hibernation is crucial for the resumption of the reproductive process in spring. Here, we investigate the spring emergence of six bat species or pairs of bat species of the genera Myotis and Plecotus at five hibernation sites in Central Europe over 5 years. Using generalized additive Poisson models (GAPMs), we analyze the influence of weather conditions (air and soil temperature, atmospheric pressure, atmospheric pressure trend, rain, wind, and cloud cover) as predictors of bat activity and separate these extrinsic triggers from residual motivation to emerge from hibernation (extrinsic factors not studied; intrinsic motivation). Although bats in a subterranean hibernaculum are more or less cut off from the outside world, all species showed weather dependence, albeit to varying degrees, with air temperature outside the hibernaculum having a significant positive effect in all species. The residual, potentially intrinsic motivation of species to emerge from their hibernacula corresponds to their general ecological adaptation, such as trophic specialization and roosting preferences. It allows the definition of three functional groups (high, medium and low residual activity groups) according to the degree of weather dependence of spring activity. A better knowledge of the interplay of extrinsic triggers and residual motivation (e.g., internal zeitgebers) for spring emergence will help to understand the flexibility of a species to adapt to a changing world.

Frank Beach Award Winner: The centrality of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in dealing with environmental change across temporal scales

Understanding if and how individuals and populations cope with environmental change is an enduring question in evolutionary ecology that has renewed importance given the pace of change in the Anthropocene. Two evolutionary strategies of coping with environmental change may be particularly important in rapidly changing environments: adaptive phenotypic plasticity and/or bet hedging. Adaptive plasticity could enable individuals to match their phenotypes to the expected environment if there is an accurate cue predicting the selective environment. Diversifying bet hedging involves the production of seemingly random phenotypes in an unpredictable environment, some of which may be adaptive. Here, I review the central role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and glucocorticoids (GCs) in enabling vertebrates to cope with environmental change through adaptive plasticity and bet hedging. I first describe how the HPA axis mediates three types of adaptive plasticity to cope with environmental change (evasion, tolerance, recovery) over short timescales (e.g., 1-3 generations) before discussing how the implications of GCs on phenotype integration may depend upon the timescale under consideration. GCs can promote adaptive phenotypic integration, but their effects on phenotypic co-variation could also limit the dimensions of phenotypic space explored by animals over longer timescales. Finally, I discuss how organismal responses to environmental stressors can act as a bet hedging mechanism and therefore enhance evolvability by increasing genetic or phenotypic variability or reducing patterns of genetic and phenotypic co-variance. Together, this emphasizes the crucial role of the HPA axis in understanding fundamental questions in evolutionary ecology.

Synthetic torpor triggers a regulated mechanism in the rat brain, favoring the reversibility of Tau protein hyperphosphorylation

Introduction: Hyperphosphorylated Tau protein (PPTau) is the hallmark of tauopathic neurodegeneration. During "synthetic torpor" (ST), a transient hypothermic state which can be induced in rats by the local pharmacological inhibition of the Raphe Pallidus, a reversible brain Tau hyperphosphorylation occurs. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the - as yet unknown - molecular mechanisms underlying this process, at both a cellular and systemic level. Methods: Different phosphorylated forms of Tau and the main cellular factors involved in Tau phospho-regulation were assessed by western blot in the parietal cortex and hippocampus of rats induced in ST, at either the hypothermic nadir or after the recovery of euthermia. Pro- and anti-apoptotic markers, as well as different systemic factors which are involved in natural torpor, were also assessed. Finally, the degree of microglia activation was determined through morphometry. Results: Overall, the results show that ST triggers a regulated biochemical process which can dam PPTau formation and favor its reversibility starting, unexpectedly for a non-hibernator, from the hypothermic nadir. In particular, at the nadir, the glycogen synthase kinase-β was largely inhibited in both regions, the melatonin plasma levels were significantly increased and the antiapoptotic factor Akt was significantly activated in the hippocampus early after, while a transient neuroinflammation was observed during the recovery period. Discussion: Together, the present data suggest that ST can trigger a previously undescribed latent and regulated physiological process, that is able to cope with brain PPTau formation.

Synergetic effects of immune challenge and stress depress cortisol, inflammatory response and antioxidant activity in fish-eating Myotis

One of the most common tools in conservation physiology is the assessment of environmental stress via glucocorticoid measurement. However, little is known of its relationship with other stress-related biomarkers, and how the incidence of an immune challenge during long-term stress could affect an individual's overall stress response. We investigated here the relationship between basal and post-acute stress fecal cortisol metabolite (FC) with different antioxidant enzymes, oxidative damage and immune parameters in the fish-eating bat, Myotis vivesi We found that in both basal and post-stress conditions, FC was highly related with a number of antioxidant enzymes and immune parameters, but not to oxidative damage. We also assessed changes of FC through the seasons. Basal FC samples and stress reactivity after short-duration stress displayed similar levels during summer, autumn and early winter, but lower concentrations in late winter. Stress reactivity after long-duration stress was greater in summer and early winter. Finally, we tested the effect of a simultaneous exposure to a long, strong stress stimulus with an immune response stimulation by administrating adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and phytohemagglutinin (PHA) after 42 h. Results showed that when both stimuli were administrated, FC concentrations, inflammation and some antioxidant activity were lowered in comparison with the control and individual administration of the challenges. Our findings support the idea that animals maintain constant basal glucocorticoid levels when living in challenging environments, but response to acute stress differs seasonally and immune defense mechanisms and stress responses might be compromised when confronted with multiple challenges.

Antifungal Potential of the Skin Microbiota of Hibernating Big Brown Bats (Eptesicus fuscus) Infected With the Causal Agent of White-Nose Syndrome

Little is known about skin microbiota in the context of the disease white-nose syndrome (WNS), caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), that has caused enormous declines of hibernating North American bats over the past decade. Interestingly, some hibernating species, such as the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), appear resistant to the disease and their skin microbiota could play a role. However, a comprehensive analysis of the skin microbiota of E. fuscus in the context of Pd has not been done. In January 2017, we captured hibernating E. fuscus, sampled their skin microbiota, and inoculated them with Pd or sham inoculum. We allowed the bats to hibernate in the lab under controlled conditions for 11 weeks and then sampled their skin microbiota to test the following hypotheses: (1) Pd infection would not disrupt the skin microbiota of Pd-resistant E. fuscus; and (2) microbial taxa with antifungal properties would be abundant both before and after inoculation with Pd. Using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we discovered that beta diversity of Pd-inoculated bats changed more over time than that of sham-inoculated bats. Still, the most abundant taxa in the community were stable throughout the experiment. Among the most abundant taxa, Pseudomonas and Rhodococcus are known for antifungal potential against Pd and other fungi. Thus, in contrast to hypothesis 1, Pd infection destabilized the skin microbiota but consistent with hypothesis 2, bacteria with known antifungal properties remained abundant and stable on the skin. This study is the first to provide a comprehensive survey of skin microbiota of E. fuscus, suggesting potential associations between the bat skin microbiota and resistance to the Pd infection and WNS. These results set the stage for future studies to characterize microbiota gene expression, better understand mechanisms of resistance to WNS, and help develop conservation strategies.

Patterns of Circulating Corticosterone in a Population of Rattlesnakes Afflicted with Snake Fungal Disease: Stress Hormones as a Potential Mediator of Seasonal Cycles in Disease Severity and Outcomes

Snake fungal disease (SFD) is an emerging threat to snake populations in the United States. Fungal pathogens are often associated with a physiological stress response mediated by the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), and afflicted individuals may incur steep coping costs. The severity of SFD can vary seasonally; however, little is known regarding (1) how SFD infection relates to HPA activity and (2) how seasonal shifts in environment, life history, or HPA activity may interact to drive seasonal patterns of infection severity and outcomes. To test the hypothesis that SFD is associated with increased HPA activity and to identify potential environmental or physiological drivers of seasonal infection, we monitored baseline corticosterone, SFD infection severity, foraging success, body condition, and reproductive status in a field-active population of pigmy rattlesnakes. Both plasma corticosterone and the severity of clinical signs of SFD peaked in the winter. Corticosterone levels were also elevated in the fall before the seasonal rise in SFD severity. Severely symptomatic snakes were in low body condition and had elevated corticosterone levels compared to moderately infected and uninfected snakes. The monthly mean severity of SFD in the population was negatively related to population-wide estimates of body condition and temperature measured in the precedent month and positively correlated with corticosterone levels measured in the precedent month. Symptomatic females were less likely to enter reproductive bouts compared to asymptomatic females. We propose the hypothesis that the seasonal interplay among environment, host energetics, and HPA activity initiates trade-offs in the fall that drive the increase in SFD prevalence, symptom severity, and decline in condition observed in the population through winter.

Trade-offs Influencing the Physiological Ecology of Hibernation in Temperate-Zone Bats

Seasonality of temperature and food availability can lead to trade-offs between the benefits of immediate reproduction and costs associated with mortality risk from starvation, inclement weather, or predation. Hibernating mammals exhibit an enormous seasonal shift in physiology and behavior and provide a useful system to examine the effect of this trade-off on key events in the annual cycle. Most of what we understand about the ecological energetics and phenology of hibernation comes from studies of rodent hibernators such as ground squirrels, chipmunks, and dormice. Temperate-zone, insectivorous bats, however, provide another useful model system to examine trade-offs influencing seasonal change within individuals. Here, I review recent studies from my laboratory on little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) from central Canada to understand the interplay between capacity for energy storage, energy expenditure during hibernation, and the timing of key events in the annual cycle of hibernating mammals. These studies have relied on measurements of body condition to assess energetic status, biologging of skin temperature using temperature telemetry, and use of passive transponders (i.e., PIT tags) to quantify emergence timing. In general, these studies suggest that, in part due to constraints associated with flight, bats exhibit unique, or at least unusual, adaptations for extreme energy savings during winter. The results also support the optimization hypothesis that current energetic status and future energy requirements influence energy expenditure during hibernation and the timing of emergence from hibernation in spring. Taken together, this work provides insight into the influence of reproductive timing and energy availability on hibernation behavior and physiology. It also has implications for understanding responses of bat populations to anthropogenic impacts like climate change and white-nose syndrome.

Molecular characterization and tissue expression profiles of prepro-vasoactive intestinal peptide in the Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis) during the active and hibernating periods

The Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), a freshwater crocodilian endemic to China, is one of the most endangered crocodilian species; up to this date, very little is known about the endocrine regulation of its metabolic activities during different physiological states. In this study, we characterized the structure of the prepro-vasoactive intestinal peptide in Chinese alligator (prepro-caVIP) for the first time and examined its expression profiles in various tissues during the active and hibernating periods. The prepro-caVIP cDNA consists of a 221-bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), a 606-bp complete coding region (CDS), and a 312-bp 3'-UTR, which encodes the 201-amino acid prepro-caVIP containing a 28-amino acid vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and a 27-amino acid PHI (peptide histidine isoleucine). Multiple alignment analysis showed that VIP shares 100% identity with the given birds, reptiles, and African clawed frog, and 89% identity with mammals, 96% with fishes. Real-time quantitative PCR showed that the prepro-caVIP is widely expressed in all the examined tissues, and the expression level is significantly higher in small intestine, stomach, pancreas, lung, and skeletal muscle, whereas lower in heart, liver, spleen, kidney, ovary, and oviduct. During hibernation, the expression level of caVIP was significantly decreased in small intestine (P < 0.01), pancreas, and skeletal muscle (P < 0.05), whereas significantly increased in liver, spleen, and lung (P < 0.01). The wide distribution of caVIP and its differential expression changes in various tissues during hibernation implicated that it might play multiple effects in Chinese alligator and participate in the physiological adaptation of various organs in a paracrine and/or neurocrine manner.

Enrichment of beneficial bacteria in the skin microbiota of bats persisting with white-nose syndrome

BACKGROUND

Infectious diseases of wildlife are increasing worldwide with implications for conservation and human public health. The microbiota (i.e. microbial community living on or in a host) could influence wildlife disease resistance or tolerance. White-nose syndrome (WNS), caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), has killed millions of hibernating North American bats since 2007. We characterized the skin microbiota of naïve, pre-WNS little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) from three WNS-negative hibernation sites and persisting, previously exposed bats from three WNS-positive sites to test the hypothesis that the skin microbiota of bats shifts following WNS invasion.

RESULTS

Using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing on 66 bats and 11 environmental samples, we found that hibernation site strongly influenced the composition and diversity of the skin microbiota. Bats from WNS-positive and WNS-negative sites differed in alpha and beta diversity, as well as in microbiota composition. Alpha diversity was reduced in persisting, WNS-positive bats, and the microbiota profile was enriched with particular taxa such Janthinobacterium, Micrococcaceae, Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, and Rhodococcus. Some of these taxa are recognized for their antifungal activity, and specific strains of Rhodococcus and Pseudomonas are known to inhibit Pd growth. Composition of the microbial community in the hibernaculum environment and the community on bat skin was superficially similar but differed in relative abundance of some bacterial taxa.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that Pd invasion leads to a shift in the skin microbiota of surviving bats and suggest the possibility that the microbiota plays a protective role for bats facing WNS. The detection of what appears to be enrichment of beneficial bacteria in the skin microbiota of persisting bats is a promising discovery for species re-establishment. Our findings highlight not only the potential value of management actions that might encourage transmission, growth, and establishment of beneficial bacteria on bats, and within hibernacula, but also the potential risks of such management actions.

Energetic benefits of enhanced summer roosting habitat for little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) recovering from white-nose syndrome

Habitat modification can improve outcomes for imperilled wildlife. Insectivorous bats in North America face a range of conservation threats, including habitat loss and white-nose syndrome (WNS). Even healthy bats face energetic constraints during spring, but enhancement of roosting habitat could reduce energetic costs, increase survival and enhance recovery from WNS. We tested the potential of artificial heating of bat roosts as a management tool for threatened bat populations. We predicted that: (i) after hibernation, captive bats would be more likely to select a roost maintained at a temperature near their thermoneutral zone; (ii) bats recovering from WNS at the end of hibernation would show a stronger preference for heated roosts compared with healthy bats; and (iii) heated roosts would result in biologically significant energy savings. We housed two groups of bats (WNS-positive and control) in separate flight cages following hibernation. Over 7.5 weeks, we quantified the presence of individuals in heated vs. unheated bat houses within each cage. We then used a series of bioenergetic models to quantify thermoregulatory costs in each type of roost under a number of scenarios. Bats preferentially selected heated bat houses, but WNS-affected bats were much more likely to use the heated bat house compared with control animals. Our model predicted energy savings of up to 81.2% for bats in artificially heated roosts if roost temperature was allowed to cool at night to facilitate short bouts of torpor. Our results are consistent with research highlighting the importance of roost microclimate and suggest that protection and enhancement of high-quality, natural roosting environments should be a priority response to a range of threats, including WNS. Our findings also suggest the potential of artificially heated bat houses to help populations recover from WNS, but more work is needed before these might be implemented on a large scale.

Evidence of ‘sickness behaviour’ in bats with white-nose syndrome

Many animals change behaviour in response to pathogenic infections. White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a fungal skin disease causing rapid declines of North American bats. Infection with Pseudogymnoascus destructans causes hibernating bats to arouse from torpor too often, potentially causing starvation. Mechanisms underlying increased arousals are not understood but fungal invasion of the wings could trigger thirst to relieve fluid loss or grooming to relieve skin irritation. Alternatively, bats might exhibit ‘sickness behaviour’, a suite of responses to infection that save energy. We quantified behaviours of healthy and experimentally inoculated little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) that could reflect active (i.e., drinking, grooming) or inactive (i.e., sickness behaviour) responses to infection. Infected bats groomed less and were less likely to visit their water dish compared to controls. These results are consistent with research suggesting that P. destructans causes sickness behaviour which could help bats compensate for energetic costs associated with infection.

Conservation Physiology and Conservation Pathogens: White-Nose Syndrome and Integrative Biology for Host-Pathogen Systems

Conservation physiology aims to apply an understanding of physiological mechanisms to management of imperiled species, populations, or ecosystems. One challenge for physiologists hoping to apply their expertise to conservation is connecting the mechanisms we study, often in the laboratory, with the vital rates of populations in the wild. There is growing appreciation that infectious pathogens can threaten populations and species, and represent an important issue for conservation. Conservation physiology has much to offer in terms of addressing the threat posed to some host species by infectious pathogens. At the same time, the well-developed theoretical framework of disease ecology could provide a model to help advance the application of physiology to a range of other conservation issues. Here, I use white-nose syndrome (WNS) in hibernating North American bats as an example of a conservation problem for which integrative physiological research has been a critical part of research and management. The response to WNS highlights the importance of a well-developed theoretical framework for the application of conservation physiology to a particular threat. I review what is known about physiological mechanisms associated with mortality from WNS and emphasize the value of combining a strong theoretical background with integrative physiological studies in order to connect physiological mechanisms with population processes and thereby maximize the potential benefits of conservation physiology.

On the value of seasonal mammals for identifying mechanisms underlying the control of food intake and body weight

This article is part of a Special Issue "Energy Balance". Seasonal cycles of adiposity and body weight reflecting changes in both food intake and energy expenditure are the norm in mammals that have evolved in temperate and polar habitats. Innate circannual rhythmicity and direct responses to the annual change in photoperiod combine to ensure that behavior and energy metabolism are regulated in anticipation of altered energetic demands such as the energetically costly processes of hibernation, migration, and lactation. In the last decade, major progress has been made into identifying the central mechanisms that underlie these profound long-term changes in behavior and physiology. Surprisingly they are distinct from the peptidergic and aminergic systems in the hypothalamus that have been identified in studies of the laboratory mouse and rat and implicated in timing meal intervals and in short-term responses to caloric restriction. Comparative studies across rodents, ungulates and birds reveal that tanycytes embedded in the ependymal layer of the third ventricle play a critical role in seasonal changes because they regulate the local availability of thyroid hormone. Understanding how this altered hormonal environment might regulate neurogenesis and plasticity in the hypothalamus should provide new insight into development of strategies to manage appetite and body weight.