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Burgac E, Kaplan İ, Köseci B, Kara E, Kor D, Bulut FD, Atmış A, Pişkin F, Tuğ Bozdoğan S, Urel Demir G, İncecik F, Önenli Mungan N. Early diagnostic clues of mucolipidosis type II: Significance of radiological findings. Am J Med Genet A 2024; 194:e63545. [PMID: 38264826 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.63545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
Mucolipidosis type-II (ML-II) is an ultra-rare disorder caused by deficiency of N-acetylglucosaminyl-1-phosphotransferase enzyme due to biallelic pathogenic variants in GNPTAB gene. There are a few known about the natural history of ML-II. In this study, we presented the natural course of 24 patients diagnosed with ML-II. Mean age at diagnosis was 9.3 ± 5.7 months. All patients had coarse face, developmental delay, and hypotonia. The mean survival time was 3.01 ± 1.4 years. The oldest patient was 6.5 years old. Twelve patients died due to lung infection and respiratory failure. We observed early and significant radiological findings of ML-II were different from typical dysostosis multiplex such as femoral cloaking, rickets-like changes, and talocalcaneal stippling. These are significant findings observed in the fetal or newborn period which is considered to be highly characteristic of ML-II and disappears in the first year. Cloaking, rickets-like changes, and stippling were not observed in patients older than three months of age and this suggests that these findings disappear within the first year. These radiological features can be used as important clues for diagnosis. We detected eight different pathogenic variants in GNPTAB gene, three of them were novel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezgi Burgac
- Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - İrem Kaplan
- Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Burcu Köseci
- Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Esra Kara
- Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Deniz Kor
- Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Fatma Derya Bulut
- Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Anıl Atmış
- Pediatric Cardiology Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | | | | | - Gizem Urel Demir
- Pediatric Genetics Department, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Faruk İncecik
- Pediatric Neurology Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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Lin C, Greenblatt MB, Gao G, Shim JH. Development of AAV-Mediated Gene Therapy Approaches to Treat Skeletal Diseases. Hum Gene Ther 2024; 35:317-328. [PMID: 38534217 PMCID: PMC11302315 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2024.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors have emerged as crucial tools in advancing gene therapy for skeletal diseases, offering the potential for sustained expression with low postinfection immunogenicity and pathogenicity. Preclinical studies support both the therapeutic efficacy and safety of these vectors, illustrating the promise of AAV-mediated gene therapy. Emerging technologies and innovations in AAV-mediated gene therapy strategies, such as gene addition, gene replacement, gene silencing, and gene editing, offer new approaches to clinical application. Recently, the increasing preclinical applications of AAV to rare skeletal diseases, such as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) and osteogenesis imperfecta (OI), and prevalent bone diseases, such as osteoporosis, bone fracture, critical-sized bone defects, and osteoarthritis, have been reported. Despite existing limitations in clinical use, such as high cost and safety, the AAV-mediated gene transfer platform is a promising approach to deliver therapeutic gene(s) to the skeleton to treat skeletal disorders, including those otherwise intractable by other therapeutic approaches. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the therapeutic advancements, challenges, limitations, and solutions within AAV-based gene therapy for prevalent and rare skeletal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chujiao Lin
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Matthew B. Greenblatt
- Research Division, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Guangping Gao
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Viral Vector Core, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jae-Hyuck Shim
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
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3
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Ammer LS, Täuber K, Perez A, Dohrmann T, Denecke J, Santer R, Blümlein U, Ozga AK, Pohl S, Muschol NM. CNS Manifestations in Mucolipidosis Type II-A Retrospective Analysis of Longitudinal Data on Neurocognitive Development and Neuroimaging in Eleven Patients. J Clin Med 2023; 12:4114. [PMID: 37373807 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12124114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucolipidosis type II (MLII), an ultra-rare lysosomal storage disorder, manifests as a fatal multi-systemic disease. Mental inhibition and progressive neurodegeneration are commonly reported disease manifestations. Nevertheless, longitudinal data on neurocognitive testing and neuroimaging lack in current literature. This study aimed to provide details on central nervous system manifestations in MLII. All MLII patients with at least one standardized developmental assessment performed between 2005 and 2022 were included by retrospective chart review. A multiple mixed linear regression model was applied. Eleven patients with a median age of 34.0 months (range 1.6-159.6) underwent 32 neurocognitive and 28 adaptive behaviour assessments as well as 14 brain magnetic resonance imagings. The scales used were mainly BSID-III (42%) and VABS-II (47%). Neurocognitive testing (per patient: mean 2.9, standard deviation (SD) 2.0) performed over 0-52.1 months (median 12.1) revealed profound impairment with a mean developmental quotient of 36.7% (SD 20.4) at last assessment. The patients showed sustained development; on average, they gained 0.28 age-equivalent score points per month (confidence interval 0.17-0.38). Apart from common (63%) cervical spinal stenosis, neuroimaging revealed unspecific, non-progressive abnormalities (i.e., mild brain atrophy, white matter lesions). In summary, MLII is associated with profound developmental impairment, but not with neurodegeneration and neurocognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luise Sophie Ammer
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Paediatric Intensive Care and Neonatology, Altona Children's Hospital, 22763 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Karolin Täuber
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anna Perez
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Dohrmann
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jonas Denecke
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - René Santer
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Blümlein
- Department of Paediatrics, Carl-Thiem-Klinikum gGmbH, 03048 Cottbus, Germany
| | - Ann-Kathrin Ozga
- Institute of Medical Biometry and Epidemiology, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sandra Pohl
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Maria Muschol
- International Centre for Lysosomal Disorders (ICLD), Department of Paediatrics, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
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Gorelik A, Illes K, Bui KH, Nagar B. Structures of the mannose-6-phosphate pathway enzyme, GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2203518119. [PMID: 35939698 PMCID: PMC9388126 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2203518119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) pathway is responsible for the transport of hydrolytic enzymes to lysosomes. N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase (GNPT) catalyzes the first step of tagging these hydrolases with M6P, which when recognized by receptors in the Golgi diverts them to lysosomes. Genetic defects in the GNPT subunits, GNPTAB and GNPTG, cause the lysosomal storage diseases mucolipidosis types II and III. To better understand its function, we determined partial three-dimensional structures of the GNPT complex. The catalytic domain contains a deep cavity for binding of uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine, and the surrounding residues point to a one-step transfer mechanism. An isolated structure of the gamma subunit of GNPT reveals that it can bind to mannose-containing glycans in different configurations, suggesting that it may play a role in directing glycans into the active site. These findings may facilitate the development of therapies for lysosomal storage diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Gorelik
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 0B1, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada
| | - Katalin Illes
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Khanh Huy Bui
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada
| | - Bhushan Nagar
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 0B1, Canada
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Del Grosso A, Parlanti G, Mezzena R, Cecchini M. Current treatment options and novel nanotechnology-driven enzyme replacement strategies for lysosomal storage disorders. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 188:114464. [PMID: 35878795 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) are a vast group of more than 50 clinically identified metabolic diseases. They are singly rare, but they affect collectively 1 on 5,000 live births. They result in most of the cases from an enzymatic defect within lysosomes, which causes the subsequent augmentation of unwanted substrates. This accumulation process leads to plenty of clinical signs, determined by the specific substrate and accumulation area. The majority of LSDs present a broad organ and tissue engagement. Brain, connective tissues, viscera and bones are usually afflicted. Among them, brain disease is markedly frequent (two-thirds of LSDs). The most clinically employed approach to treat LSDs is enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), which is practiced by administering systemically the missed or defective enzyme. It represents a healthful strategy for 11 LSDs at the moment, but it solves the pathology only in the case of Gaucher disease. This approach, in fact, is not efficacious in the case of LSDs that have an effect on the central nervous system (CNS) due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Additionally, ERT suffers from several other weak points, such as low penetration of the exogenously administered enzyme to poorly vascularized areas, the development of immunogenicity and infusion-associated reactions (IARs), and, last but not least, the very high cost and lifelong needed. To ameliorate these weaknesses lot of efforts have been recently spent around the development of innovative nanotechnology-driven ERT strategies. They may boost the power of ERT and minimize adverse reactions by loading enzymes into biodegradable nanomaterials. Enzyme encapsulation into biocompatible liposomes, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles, for example, can protect enzymatic activity, eliminating immunologic reactions and premature enzyme degradation. It can also permit a controlled release of the payload, ameliorating pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug. Additionally, the potential to functionalize the surface of the nanocarrier with targeting agents (antibodies or peptides), could promote the passage through biological barriers. In this review we examined the clinically applied ERTs, highlighting limitations that do not allow to completely cure the specific LSD. Later, we critically consider the nanotechnology-based ERT strategies that have beenin-vitroand/orin-vivotested to improve ERT efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambra Del Grosso
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Gabriele Parlanti
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Roberta Mezzena
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Cecchini
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
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Mucolipidoses Overview: Past, Present, and Future. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186812. [PMID: 32957425 PMCID: PMC7555117 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucolipidosis II and III (ML II/III) are caused by a deficiency of uridine-diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine: lysosomal-enzyme-N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase (GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase, EC2.7.8.17), which tags lysosomal enzymes with a mannose 6-phosphate (M6P) marker for transport to the lysosome. The process is performed by a sequential two-step process: first, GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase catalyzes the transfer of GlcNAc-1-phosphate to the selected mannose residues on lysosomal enzymes in the cis-Golgi network. The second step removes GlcNAc from lysosomal enzymes by N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphodiester α-N-acetylglucosaminidase (uncovering enzyme) and exposes the mannose 6-phosphate (M6P) residues in the trans-Golgi network, in which the enzymes are targeted to the lysosomes by M6Preceptors. A deficiency of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase causes the hypersecretion of lysosomal enzymes out of cells, resulting in a shortage of multiple lysosomal enzymes within lysosomes. Due to a lack of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase, the accumulation of cholesterol, phospholipids, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), and other undegraded substrates occurs in the lysosomes. Clinically, ML II and ML III exhibit quite similar manifestations to mucopolysaccharidoses (MPSs), including specific skeletal deformities known as dysostosis multiplex and gingival hyperplasia. The life expectancy is less than 10 years in the severe type, and there is no definitive treatment for this disease. In this review, we have described the updated diagnosis and therapy on ML II/III.
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Favret JM, Weinstock NI, Feltri ML, Shin D. Pre-clinical Mouse Models of Neurodegenerative Lysosomal Storage Diseases. Front Mol Biosci 2020; 7:57. [PMID: 32351971 PMCID: PMC7174556 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There are over 50 lysosomal hydrolase deficiencies, many of which cause neurodegeneration, cognitive decline and death. In recent years, a number of broad innovative therapies have been proposed and investigated for lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs), such as enzyme replacement, substrate reduction, pharmacologic chaperones, stem cell transplantation, and various forms of gene therapy. Murine models that accurately reflect the phenotypes observed in human LSDs are critical for the development, assessment and implementation of novel translational therapies. The goal of this review is to summarize the neurodegenerative murine LSD models available that recapitulate human disease, and the pre-clinical studies previously conducted. We also describe some limitations and difficulties in working with mouse models of neurodegenerative LSDs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Daesung Shin
- Hunter James Kelly Research Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
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Nagree MS, Scalia S, McKillop WM, Medin JA. An update on gene therapy for lysosomal storage disorders. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2019; 19:655-670. [DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2019.1607837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Murtaza S. Nagree
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee,
WI, USA
| | - Simone Scalia
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee,
WI, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey A. Medin
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee,
WI, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee,
WI, USA
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Jimenez J, Sakthivel M, Nischal KK, Fedorchak MV. Drug delivery systems and novel formulations to improve treatment of rare corneal disease. Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:1564-1574. [PMID: 30872110 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2019.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
As the field of ocular drug delivery grows so does the potential for novel drug discovery or reformulation in lesser-known diseases of the eye. In particular, rare corneal diseases are an interesting area of research because drug delivery is limited to the outermost tissue of the eye. This review will highlight the opportunities and challenges of drug reformulation and alternative treatment approaches for rare corneal diseases. The barriers to effective drug delivery and proposed solutions in development will be discussed along with an overview of corneal rare disease resources, their current treatments and ophthalmic drug delivery systems that could benefit such cases. The regulatory considerations for effective translation of orphan-designated products will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Jimenez
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Meera Sakthivel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kanwal K Nischal
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Morgan V Fedorchak
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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10
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Ho CC, Tsung LLY, Liu KT, Poon WT. GNPTAB c.2404C > T nonsense mutation in a patient with mucolipidosis III alpha/beta: a case report. BMC MEDICAL GENETICS 2018; 19:162. [PMID: 30208878 PMCID: PMC6134758 DOI: 10.1186/s12881-018-0679-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Background Mucolipidosis alpha/beta is an inborn error of metabolism characterized by deficiency of GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase, in which essential alpha/beta subunits are encoded by the GNPTAB gene. The autosomal recessive condition is due to disruptions of hydrolase mannose 6-phosphate marker generation, defective lysosomal targeting and subsequent intracellular accumulation of non-degraded material. Clinical severity depends on residual GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase activity, which distinguishes between the milder type III disease and the severe, neonatal onset type II disease. Case presentation We report the clinical, biochemical and genetic diagnosis of mucolipidosis III alpha/beta in a two-year-old Chinese boy who initially presented with poor weight gain, microcephaly and increased tone. He was confirmed to harbor the common splice site mutation c.2715 + 1G > A and the nonsense variant c.2404C > T (p.Q802*). Clinically, the patient had multiple phenotypic features typical of mucopolysaccharidosis including joint contractures, coarse facial features, kypho-lordosis, pectus carinatum and umbilical hernia. However, the relatively mild developmental delay compared to severe type I and type II mucopolysaccharidosis and the absence of macrocephaly raised the possibility of the less commonly diagnosed mucolipidosis alpha/beta. Critical roles of lysosomal enzyme activity assay, which showed elevated α-iduronidase, iduronate sulfatase, galactose-6-sulphate sulphatase, arylsulfatase B and α-hexosaminidase activities; and genetic study, which confirmed the parental origin of both mutations, were highlighted. Conclusions The recently reported nonsense variant c.2404C > T in the GNPTAB gene is further recognized and this contributes to the genotype-phenotype spectrum of mucolipidosis alpha/beta. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12881-018-0679-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Chun Ho
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital, Chai Wan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Lilian Li-Yan Tsung
- Department of Paediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital, Chai Wan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Kam-Tim Liu
- Department of Paediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital, Chai Wan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Wing-Tat Poon
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital, Chai Wan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
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