The impact of mitochondrial genome analyses on the understanding of deuterostome phylogeny

Mitogenomic phylogenetic analyses of Leptogorgia virgulata and Leptogorgia hebes (Anthozoa: Octocorallia) from the Gulf of Mexico provides insight on Gorgoniidae divergence between Pacific and Atlantic lineages

The use of genetics in recent years has brought to light the need to reevaluate the classification of many gorgonian octocorals. This study focuses on two Leptogorgia species-Leptogorgia virgulata and Leptogorgia hebes-from the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (GOM). We target complete mitochondrial genomes and mtMutS sequences, and integrate this data with previous genetic research of gorgonian corals to resolve phylogenetic relationships and estimate divergence times. This study contributes the first complete mitochondrial genomes for L. ptogorgia virgulata and L. hebes. Our resulting phylogenies stress the need to redefine the taxonomy of the genus Leptogorgia in its entirety. The fossil-calibrated divergence times for Eastern Pacific and Western Atlantic Leptogorgia species based on complete mitochondrial genomes shows that the use of multiple genes results in estimates of more recent speciation events than previous research based on single genes. These more recent divergence times are in agreement with geologic data pertaining to the formation of the Isthmus of Panama.

Characterization of the complete mitogenome of Anopheles aquasalis, and phylogenetic divergences among Anopheles from diverse geographic zones

Whole mitogenome sequences (mtDNA) have been exploited for insect ecology studies, using them as molecular markers to reconstruct phylogenies, or to infer phylogeographic relationships and gene flow. Recent Anopheles phylogenomic studies have provided information regarding the time of deep lineage divergences within the genus. Here we report the complete 15,393 bp mtDNA sequences of Anopheles aquasalis, a Neotropical human malaria vector. When comparing its structure and base composition with other relevant and available anopheline mitogenomes, high similarity and conserved genomic features were observed. Furthermore, 22 mtDNA sequences comprising anopheline and Dipteran sibling species were analyzed to reconstruct phylogenies and estimate dates of divergence between taxa. Phylogenetic analysis using complete mtDNA sequences suggests that A. aquasalis diverged from the Anopheles albitarsis complex ~28 million years ago (MYA), and ~38 MYA from Anopheles darlingi. Bayesian analysis suggests that the most recent ancestor of Nyssorhynchus and Anopheles + Cellia was extant ~83 MYA, corroborating current estimates of ~79–100 MYA. Additional sampling and publication of African, Asian, and North American anopheline mitogenomes would improve the resolution of the Anopheles phylogeny and clarify early continental dispersal routes.

Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genome of Amphioplus laevis (Ophiuroidea, Amphiuridae) with phylogenetic analysis

The complete mitochondrial genome of Amphioplus laevis was 16,084 bp in length (Genbank accession: MN276320). It contained 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNA and 22 transfer RNA. The GC contents of A. laevis was 37.59%. The gene order was similar with species in the same family. Phylogenetic relationships within known ophiuroids reconstructed by 13 protein-coding mitochondrial genes, which showed that it was mostly related to Amphiopholis squamata, corresponding to the gene order. These results could provide a novel insight to the phylogeny of Ophiuroidea.

Holothurians as a Model System to Study Regeneration

Echinoderms possess an incredible regenerative capacity. Within this phylum, holothurians, better known as sea cucumbers, can regenerate most of their internal and external organs. While regeneration has been studied in several species, the most recent and extensive studies have been done in the species Holothuria glaberrima, the focus of most of our discussion. This chapter presents the model system and integrates the work that has been done to determine the major steps that take place, during regeneration of the intestinal and nervous system, from wound healing to the reestablishment of original function. We describe the cellular and molecular events associated with the regeneration processes and also describe the techniques that have been used, discuss the results, and explain the gaps in our knowledge that remain. We expect that the information provided here paves the road for new and young investigators to continue the study of the amazing potential of regeneration in members of the Echinodermata and how these studies will shed some light into the mechanisms that are common to many regenerative processes.

Shotgun assembly of the mitochondrial genome from Fenneropenaeus penicillatus with phylogenetic consideration

The complete mitochondrial genome is of great importance for better understanding of the genome-level characteristics and phylogenetic relationships among related species. In this study, Fenneropenaeus penicillatus mitochondrial genome sequence was determined by next-generation sequencing. The complete genome DNA was 16,040 bp in length and consisted of a typical set of 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, two ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes and a putative control region (CR). The gene arrangement is identical to the pancrustacean pattern. The overall base composition of its mitochondrial genome is estimated to be 34.1% for A, 34.1% for T, 12.5% for G and 19.3% for C with a high A+T content (68.2%). The analysis of the average Ka/Ks in the 13 mitochondrial protein-coding genes of penaeid shrimps indicated a strong purifying selection within this group. The phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial sequences and 13 concatenated protein-coding genes showed strong statistic support for the following relationship among the five genera ((Penaeus s.s+Fenneropenaeus)+(Litopenaeus+Farfantepenaeus))+Marsupenaeus. The sequence data of F. penicillatus can provide useful information for the studies on molecular systematics, population structure, stock evaluation and conservation genetics.

Mitochondrial gene order variation in the brachiopod Lingula anatina and its implications for mitochondrial evolution in lophotrochozoans

Vertebrate mitochondrial (mt) genomes display highly conserved gene order and relatively low evolutionary rates. However, these features are variable in marine invertebrates. Here we present the mt genome of the lingulid brachiopod, Lingula anatina, from Amami Island, Japan, as part of the nuclear genome project. We obtain ~2000-fold coverage of the 17.9-kb mt genome using Illumina sequencing, and we identify hypervariable regions within the same individual. Transcriptome analyses show that mt transcripts are polycistronic and expressed differentially. Unexpectedly, we find that the mt gene order of Amami Lingula is completely shuffled compared to that of a specimen from Yanagawa, suggesting that there may be cryptic species. Using breakpoint distance analyses with 101 metazoan mt genomes, we show that the evolutionary history of mt gene order among lophotrochozoans is unique. Analyses of non-synonymous substitution rates reveal that mt protein-coding genes of Lingula have experienced rapid evolution comparable to that expected for interspecific comparisons. Whole genome phylogenetic analyses suggest that mt genomes have limited value for inferring the phylogenetic positions of lophotrochozoans because of their high evolutionary rates in brachiopods and bivalves.

Chordate evolution and the three-phylum system

Traditional metazoan phylogeny classifies the Vertebrata as a subphylum of the phylum Chordata, together with two other subphyla, the Urochordata (Tunicata) and the Cephalochordata. The Chordata, together with the phyla Echinodermata and Hemichordata, comprise a major group, the Deuterostomia. Chordates invariably possess a notochord and a dorsal neural tube. Although the origin and evolution of chordates has been studied for more than a century, few authors have intimately discussed taxonomic ranking of the three chordate groups themselves. Accumulating evidence shows that echinoderms and hemichordates form a clade (the Ambulacraria), and that within the Chordata, cephalochordates diverged first, with tunicates and vertebrates forming a sister group. Chordates share tadpole-type larvae containing a notochord and hollow nerve cord, whereas ambulacrarians have dipleurula-type larvae containing a hydrocoel. We propose that an evolutionary occurrence of tadpole-type larvae is fundamental to understanding mechanisms of chordate origin. Protostomes have now been reclassified into two major taxa, the Ecdysozoa and Lophotrochozoa, whose developmental pathways are characterized by ecdysis and trochophore larvae, respectively. Consistent with this classification, the profound dipleurula versus tadpole larval differences merit a category higher than the phylum. Thus, it is recommended that the Ecdysozoa, Lophotrochozoa, Ambulacraria and Chordata be classified at the superphylum level, with the Chordata further subdivided into three phyla, on the basis of their distinctive characteristics.

Phylogenetic utility, and variability in structure and content, of complete mitochondrial genomes among genetic lineages of the Hawaiian anchialine shrimp Halocaridina rubra Holthuis 1963 (Atyidae:Decapoda)

The Atyidae are caridean shrimp possessing hair-like setae on their claws and are important contributors to ecological services in tropical and temperate fresh and brackish water ecosystems. Complete mitochondrial genomes have only been reported from five of the 449 species in the family, thus limiting understanding of mitochondrial genome evolution and the phylogenetic utility of complete mitochondrial sequences in the Atyidae. Here, comparative analyses of complete mitochondrial genomes from eight genetic lineages of Halocaridina rubra, an atyid endemic to the anchialine ecosystem of the Hawaiian Archipelago, are presented. Although gene number, order, and orientation were syntenic among genomes, three regions were identified and further quantified where conservation was substantially lower: (1) high length and sequence variability in the tRNA-Lys and tRNA-Asp intergenic region; (2) a 317-bp insertion between the NAD6 and CytB genes confined to a single lineage and representing a partial duplication of CytB; and (3) the putative control region. Phylogenetic analyses utilizing complete mitochondrial sequences provided new insights into relationships among the H. rubra genetic lineages, with the topology of one clade correlating to the geologic sequence of the islands. However, deeper nodes in the phylogeny lacked bootstrap support. Overall, our results from H. rubra suggest intra-specific mitochondrial genomic diversity could be underestimated across the Metazoa since the vast majority of complete genomes are from just a single individual of a species.

Phylogenomic analyses of Echinodermata support the sister groups of Asterozoa and Echinozoa

Echinoderms (sea urchins, sea stars, brittle stars, sea lilies and sea cucumbers) are a group of diverse organisms, second in number within deuterostome species to only the chordates. Echinoderms serve as excellent model systems for developmental biology due to their diverse developmental mechanisms, tractable laboratory use, and close phylogenetic distance to chordates. In addition, echinoderms are very well represented in the fossil record, including some larval features, making echinoderms a valuable system for studying evolutionary development. The internal relationships of Echinodermata have not been consistently supported across phylogenetic analyses, however, and this has hindered the study of other aspects of their biology. In order to test echinoderm phylogenetic relationships, we sequenced 23 de novo transcriptomes from all five clades of echinoderms. Using multiple phylogenetic methods at a variety of sampling depths we have constructed a well-supported phylogenetic tree of Echinodermata, including support for the sister groups of Asterozoa (sea stars and brittle stars) and Echinozoa (sea urchins and sea cucumbers). These results will help inform developmental and evolutionary studies specifically in echinoderms and deuterostomes in general.

The biology of the germ line in echinoderms

The formation of the germ line in an embryo marks a fresh round of reproductive potential. The developmental stage and location within the embryo where the primordial germ cells (PGCs) form, however, differs markedly among species. In many animals, the germ line is formed by an inherited mechanism, in which molecules made and selectively partitioned within the oocyte drive the early development of cells that acquire this material to a germ-line fate. In contrast, the germ line of other animals is fated by an inductive mechanism that involves signaling between cells that directs this specialized fate. In this review, we explore the mechanisms of germ-line determination in echinoderms, an early-branching sister group to the chordates. One member of the phylum, sea urchins, appears to use an inherited mechanism of germ-line formation, whereas their relatives, the sea stars, appear to use an inductive mechanism. We first integrate the experimental results currently available for germ-line determination in the sea urchin, for which considerable new information is available, and then broaden the investigation to the lesser-known mechanisms in sea stars and other echinoderms. Even with this limited insight, it appears that sea stars, and perhaps the majority of the echinoderm taxon, rely on inductive mechanisms for germ-line fate determination. This enables a strongly contrasted picture for germ-line determination in this phylum, but one for which transitions between different modes of germ-line determination might now be experimentally addressed.

The complete mitogenome of Cherax monticola (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae), a large highland crayfish from New Guinea

The complete mitochondrial genome of a highland freshwater crayfish, Cherax monticola, was recovered by shotgun sequencing. The mitogenome consists of 15,917 base pairs containing 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal subunit genes, 22 transfer RNAs and a non-coding AT-rich region. The base composition of C. monticola is 33.46% for T, 21.48% for C, 33.71% for A and 11.35% for G, with an AT bias of 67.17%.

Integrated shotgun sequencing and bioinformatics pipeline allows ultra-fast mitogenome recovery and confirms substantial gene rearrangements in Australian freshwater crayfishes

BACKGROUND

Although it is possible to recover the complete mitogenome directly from shotgun sequencing data, currently reported methods and pipelines are still relatively time consuming and costly. Using a sample of the Australian freshwater crayfish Engaeus lengana, we demonstrate that it is possible to achieve three-day turnaround time (four hours hands-on time) from tissue sample to NCBI-ready submission file through the integration of MiSeq sequencing platform, Nextera sample preparation protocol, MITObim assembly algorithm and MITOS annotation pipeline.

RESULTS

The complete mitochondrial genome of the parastacid freshwater crayfish, Engaeus lengana, was recovered by modest shotgun sequencing (1.2 giga bases) using the Illumina MiSeq benchtop sequencing platform. Genome assembly using the MITObim mitogenome assembler recovered the mitochondrial genome as a single contig with a 97-fold mean coverage (min. = 17; max. = 138). The mitogenome consists of 15,934 base pairs and contains the typical 37 mitochondrial genes and a non-coding AT-rich region. The genome arrangement is similar to the only other published parastacid mitogenome from the Australian genus Cherax.

CONCLUSIONS

We infer that the gene order arrangement found in Cherax destructor is common to Australian crayfish and may be a derived feature of the southern hemisphere family Parastacidae. Further, we report to our knowledge, the simplest and fastest protocol for the recovery and assembly of complete mitochondrial genomes using the MiSeq benchtop sequencer.

A comprehensive analysis of bilaterian mitochondrial genomes and phylogeny

About 2800 mitochondrial genomes of Metazoa are present in NCBI RefSeq today, two thirds belonging to vertebrates. Metazoan phylogeny was recently challenged by large scale EST approaches (phylogenomics), stabilizing classical nodes while simultaneously supporting new sister group hypotheses. The use of mitochondrial data in deep phylogeny analyses was often criticized because of high substitution rates on nucleotides, large differences in amino acid substitution rate between taxa, and biases in nucleotide frequencies. Nevertheless, mitochondrial genome data might still be promising as it allows for a larger taxon sampling, while presenting a smaller amount of sequence information. We present the most comprehensive analysis of bilaterian relationships based on mitochondrial genome data. The analyzed data set comprises more than 650 mitochondrial genomes that have been chosen to represent a profound sample of the phylogenetic as well as sequence diversity. The results are based on high quality amino acid alignments obtained from a complete reannotation of the mitogenomic sequences from NCBI RefSeq database. However, the results failed to give support for many otherwise undisputed high-ranking taxa, like Mollusca, Hexapoda, Arthropoda, and suffer from extreme long branches of Nematoda, Platyhelminthes, and some other taxa. In order to identify the sources of misleading phylogenetic signals, we discuss several problems associated with mitochondrial genome data sets, e.g. the nucleotide and amino acid landscapes and a strong correlation of gene rearrangements with long branches.