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Abstract
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) traditionally refers to abnormal glucose tolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. GDM has long been associated with obstetric and neonatal complications primarily relating to higher infant birthweight and is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for future maternal and offspring cardiometabolic disease. The prevalence of GDM continues to rise internationally due to epidemiological factors including the increase in background rates of obesity in women of reproductive age and rising maternal age and the implementation of the revised International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups' criteria and diagnostic procedures for GDM. The current lack of international consensus for the diagnosis of GDM reflects its complex historical evolution and pragmatic antenatal resource considerations given GDM is now 1 of the most common complications of pregnancy. Regardless, the contemporary clinical approach to GDM should be informed not only by its short-term complications but also by its longer term prognosis. Recent data demonstrate the effect of early in utero exposure to maternal hyperglycemia, with evidence for fetal overgrowth present prior to the traditional diagnosis of GDM from 24 weeks' gestation, as well as the durable adverse impact of maternal hyperglycemia on child and adolescent metabolism. The major contribution of GDM to the global epidemic of intergenerational cardiometabolic disease highlights the importance of identifying GDM as an early risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, broadening the prevailing clinical approach to address longer term maternal and offspring complications following a diagnosis of GDM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianne Sweeting
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Jencia Wong
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Helen R Murphy
- Diabetes in Pregnancy Team, Cambridge University Hospitals, Cambridge, UK
- Norwich Medical School, Bob Champion Research and Education Building, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
- Division of Women’s Health, Kings College London, London, UK
| | - Glynis P Ross
- Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Giuliani C, Sciacca L, Biase ND, Tumminia A, Milluzzo A, Faggiano A, Romana Amorosi F, Convertino A, Bitterman O, Festa C, Napoli A. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus pregnancy by pregnancy: early, late and nonrecurrent GDM. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2022; 188:109911. [PMID: 35537521 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2022.109911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To assess the GDM recurrence rate in a cohort of pregnant women with prior GDM, to compare two consecutive pregnancies complicated by GDM, to compare women with nonrecurrent and recurrent GDM and to stratify the latter in women with early and late recurrent GDM. METHODS Retrospective study including 113 women with GDM in an index pregnancy (G1), at least a postindex pregnancy (G2) and normal glucose tolerance in between. The GDM recurrence rate was assessed, and maternal and neonatal outcomes and pancreatic beta cell function of the index pregnancy were compared with those of the postindex pregnancy (G1 vs. G2). Women with nonrecurrent GDM were compared with those with recurrent GDM. RESULTS The GDM recurrence rate was 83.2% and the minimum prevalence of early recurrent GDM was 43,4%. The pregravid BMI of women with recurrent GDM increased between the two pregnancies (27.3 ± 5.98 vs. 28.1 ± 6.19 kg/m2, p < 0.05). Women with recurrent GDM had a higher prepregnancy BMI than those with nonrecurrent GDM either at the index (27.3 ± 5.98 vs. 23.1 ± 4.78 kg/m2, p < 0.05) or the postindex pregnancy (27 ± 6vs.24 ± 4,4 kg/m2, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS GDM shows a high recurrence rate in our cohort of slightly overweight women, with an early GDM minimum prevalence of 43.4%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Giuliani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Laura Sciacca
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Endocrinology Section, University of Catania Medical School, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Tumminia
- Endocrinology Unit, Garibaldi-Nesima Hospital, Catania, Italy
| | - Agostino Milluzzo
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Endocrinology Section, University of Catania Medical School, Catania, Italy
| | - Antongiulio Faggiano
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Alessio Convertino
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Angela Napoli
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; Israelitico Hospital, Rome, Italy; Santa Famiglia CdC, Rome, Italy
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Hannah W, Bhavadharini B, Beks H, Deepa M, Anjana RM, Uma R, Martin E, McNamara K, Versace V, Saravanan P, Mohan V. Global burden of early pregnancy gestational diabetes mellitus (eGDM): A systematic review. Acta Diabetol 2022; 59:403-427. [PMID: 34743219 DOI: 10.1007/s00592-021-01800-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnosed during the first trimester of pregnancy is called 'early pregnancy Gestational Diabetes Mellitus' (eGDM). The burden of eGDM has only been studied sporadically. This review aims to understand the global burden of eGDM in terms of prevalence, risk factors, pregnancy outcomes, treatment and postpartum dysglycemia. METHODS: A review of epidemiologic studies reporting on early GDM screening as per Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for prevalence reviews was conducted. A customized search strategy was used to search electronic databases namely, PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, MEDLINE, Ovid, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Three independent reviewers reviewed studies using Covidence software. Observational studies irrespective of study design and regardless of diagnostic criteria were included. Quality of evidence was appraised, and findings were synthesized. RESULTS Of 58 included studies, 41 reported a prevalence of eGDM, ranging from 0.7 to 36.8%. Body mass index (BMI), previous history of GDM, family history of diabetes and multiparity were reported as eGDM risk factors. Adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with eGDM were macrosomia, caesarean delivery, induction of labour, hypertension, preterm delivery, and shoulder dystocia. The incidence of postpartum dysglycemia and the need for insulin was higher in women with eGDM. The risk of bias was moderate. Heterogeneity of studies is a limitation. Meta-analysis was not performed. CONCLUSIONS There is heterogeneity in the prevalence of eGDM and intrapartum and postpartum ill effects for the mother and the offspring. There is a need to develop a universal screening protocol for eGDM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley Hannah
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation - ICMR Center for Advanced Research on Diabetes and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, No 4, Conran Smith Road, Gopalapuram, Chennai, 600 086, India
- Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | | | | | - Mohan Deepa
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation - ICMR Center for Advanced Research on Diabetes and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, No 4, Conran Smith Road, Gopalapuram, Chennai, 600 086, India
| | - Ranjit Mohan Anjana
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation - ICMR Center for Advanced Research on Diabetes and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, No 4, Conran Smith Road, Gopalapuram, Chennai, 600 086, India
| | - Ram Uma
- Seethapathy Clinic & Hospital, Chennai, India
| | | | | | | | - Ponnusamy Saravanan
- Populations, Evidence and Technologies, Warwick Medical School, Gibbet Hill, Division of Health Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, George Eliot Hospital NHS Trust, Nunetaon, UK
| | - Viswanathan Mohan
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation - ICMR Center for Advanced Research on Diabetes and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, No 4, Conran Smith Road, Gopalapuram, Chennai, 600 086, India.
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Yang Y, Wu N. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Preeclampsia: Correlation and Influencing Factors. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9:831297. [PMID: 35252402 PMCID: PMC8889031 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.831297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and preeclampsia (PE) are common pregnancy complications with similar risk factors and pathophysiological changes. Evidence from previous studies suggests that the incidence of PE is significantly increased in women with GDM, but whether GDM is independently related to the occurrence of PE has remained controversial. GDM complicated by PE further increases perinatal adverse events with greater impact on the future maternal and offspring health. Identify factors associated with PE in women with GDM women, specifically those that are controllable, is important for improving pregnancy outcomes. This paper provides the findings of a review on the correlation between GDM and PE, factors associated with PE in women with GDM, possible mechanisms, and predictive markers. Most studies concluded that GDM is independently associated with PE in singleton pregnancy, and optimizing the treatment and management of GDM can reduce the incidence of PE, which is very helpful to improve pregnancy outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Na Wu
- Department of Endocrinology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Clinical Skills Practice Teaching Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- *Correspondence: Na Wu
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Immanuel J, Simmons D. Screening and Treatment for Early-Onset Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Curr Diab Rep 2017; 17:115. [PMID: 28971305 DOI: 10.1007/s11892-017-0943-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We conducted a systematic review to evaluate the current evidence for screening and treatment for early-onset gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) RECENT FINDINGS: Many of the women with early GDM in the first trimester do not have evidence of hyperglycemia at 24-28 weeks' gestation. A high proportion (15-70%) of women with GDM can be detected early in pregnancy depending on the setting, criteria used and screening strategy. However, there remains no good evidence for any of the diagnostic criteria for early-onset GDM. In a meta-analysis of 13 cohort studies, perinatal mortality (relative risk (RR) 3.58 [1.91, 6.71]), neonatal hypoglycemia (RR 1.61 [1.02, 2.55]), and insulin use (RR 1.71 [1.45, 2.03]) were greater among early-onset GDM women compared to late-onset GDM women, despite treatment. Considering the high likelihood of benefit from treatment, there is an urgent need for randomized controlled trials that investigate any benefits and possible harms of treatment of early-onset GDM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jincy Immanuel
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Campbelltown, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - David Simmons
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Campbelltown, NSW, 2751, Australia.
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Oza-Frank R, Moreland JJ, McNamara K, Geraghty SR, Keim SA. Early Lactation and Infant Feeding Practices Differ by Maternal Gestational Diabetes History. J Hum Lact 2016; 32:658-665. [PMID: 27550377 PMCID: PMC6322208 DOI: 10.1177/0890334416663196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detailed data on lactation practices by gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) history are lacking, precluding potential explanations and targets for interventions to improve lactation intensity and duration and, ultimately, long-term maternal and child health. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to examine breastfeeding practices through 12 months postpartum by GDM history. METHODS Women who delivered a singleton, liveborn infant at The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center (Columbus, OH), in 2011 completed a postal questionnaire to assess lactation and infant feeding practices and difficulties. Bivariate and multivariate associations between GDM history and lactation and infant feeding practices were examined. RESULTS The sample included 432 women (62% response rate), including 7.9% who had GDM during the index pregnancy. Women with GDM initiated breastfeeding (at-the-breast or pumping) as often as women without any diabetes but were more likely to report introduction of formula within the first 2 days of life (79.4% vs 53.8%, P < .01; adjusted odds ratio: 3.48; 95% confidence interval, 1.47-8.26). Women with GDM initiated pumping 4 days earlier than women without diabetes ( P < .05), which was confirmed in adjusted analyses. There was no difference in the proportion of women reporting breastfeeding difficulty (odds ratio: 2.08; 95% confidence interval, 0.78-5.52). However, there was a trend toward women with GDM reporting more formula feeding and less at-the-breast feeding as strategies to address difficulty compared with women without diabetes. CONCLUSION Additional research is needed to understand why women with GDM engage in different early lactation and infant feeding practices, and how best to promote and sustain breastfeeding among these women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reena Oza-Frank
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Kelly McNamara
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Sarah A. Keim
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
- The Ohio State University College of Public Health, Columbus, OH, USA
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Sweeting AN, Ross GP, Hyett J, Molyneaux L, Constantino M, Harding AJ, Wong J. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Early Pregnancy: Evidence for Poor Pregnancy Outcomes Despite Treatment. Diabetes Care 2016; 39:75-81. [PMID: 26645084 DOI: 10.2337/dc15-0433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/06/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent guidelines recommend testing at <24 weeks of gestation for maternal dysglycemia in "high-risk" women. Evidence to support the early identification and treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is, however, limited. We examined the prevalence, clinical characteristics, and pregnancy outcomes of high-risk women with GDM diagnosed at <24 weeks of gestation (early GDM) and those with pre-existing diabetes compared with GDM diagnosed at ≥24 weeks of gestation, in a large treated multiethnic cohort. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Outcomes from 4,873 women attending a university hospital antenatal diabetes clinic between 1991 and 2011 were examined. All were treated to standardized glycemic targets. Women were stratified as pre-existing diabetes (n = 65) or GDM diagnosed at <12 weeks of gestation (n = 68), at 12-23 weeks of gestation (n = 1,247), or at ≥24 weeks of gestation (n = 3,493). RESULTS Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy including pre-eclampsia, preterm delivery, cesarean section, and neonatal jaundice (all P < 0.001) were more prevalent in women with pre-existing diabetes and early GDM. Macrosomia (21.8% vs. 20.3%, P = 0.8), large for gestational age (39.6% vs. 32.8%, P = 0.4), and neonatal intensive care admission (38.5% vs. 39.7%, P = 0.9) in women in whom GDM was diagnosed at <12 weeks of gestation were comparable to rates seen in women with pre-existing diabetes. CONCLUSIONS Despite early testing and current best practice treatment, early GDM in high-risk women remains associated with poorer pregnancy outcomes. Outcomes for those in whom GDM was diagnosed at <12 weeks of gestation approximated those seen in pre-existing diabetes. These findings indicate the need for further studies to establish the efficacy of alternative management approaches to improve outcomes in these high-risk pregnancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianne N Sweeting
- Diabetes Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Discipline of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Glynis P Ross
- Diabetes Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Discipline of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jon Hyett
- Department of High Risk Obstetrics, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Discipline of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Neonatology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lynda Molyneaux
- Diabetes Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Discipline of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Maria Constantino
- Diabetes Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anna Jane Harding
- Diabetes Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jencia Wong
- Diabetes Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Discipline of Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Boriboonhirunsarn D, Kasempipatchai V. Incidence of large for gestational age infants when gestational diabetes mellitus is diagnosed early and late in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2015; 42:273-8. [DOI: 10.1111/jog.12914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 10/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dittakarn Boriboonhirunsarn
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology; Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University; Bangkok Thailand
| | - Vorama Kasempipatchai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology; Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University; Bangkok Thailand
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Ng D, Beckmann M, Mcintyre HD, Wilkinson SA. Changing the protocol for gestational diabetes mellitus screening. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2015; 55:427-33. [DOI: 10.1111/ajo.12346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dora Ng
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology; Mater Mothers Hospital; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Michael Beckmann
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology; Mater Mothers Hospital; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Mater Research Institute; University of Queensland; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
- University of Queensland School of Medicine; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Harold David Mcintyre
- Mater Research Institute; University of Queensland; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
- University of Queensland School of Medicine; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Mater Hospital; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Shelley A Wilkinson
- Mater Research Institute; University of Queensland; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Mater Hospital; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics; Mater Health Services; Raymond Tce; South Brisbane Queensland Australia
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Allnutt KJ, Allan CA, Brown J. Early pregnancy screening for identification of undiagnosed pre-existing diabetes to improve maternal and infant health. Hippokratia 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd011601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine J Allnutt
- Monash University; Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology; 246 Clayton Road Clayton Victoria Australia 3168
| | - Carolyn A Allan
- Monash University; Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology; 246 Clayton Road Clayton Victoria Australia 3168
| | - Julie Brown
- The University of Auckland; Liggins Institute; Park Rd Grafton Auckland New Zealand 1142
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Chaemsaithong P, Romero R, Tarca AL, Korzeniewski SJ, Schwartz AG, Miranda J, Ahmed AI, Dong Z, Hassan SS, Yeo L, Tinnakorn T. Maternal plasma fetuin-A concentration is lower in patients who subsequently developed preterm preeclampsia than in uncomplicated pregnancy: a longitudinal study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2014; 28:1260-1269. [PMID: 25115163 DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2014.954242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Objective: Fetuin-A is a negative acute phase protein reactant that acts as a mediator for lipotoxicity, leading to insulin resistance. Intravascular inflammation and insulin resistance have been implicated in the mechanisms of disease responsible for preeclampsia (PE). Maternal plasma concentrations of fetuin-A at the time of diagnosis of preterm PE are lower than in control patients with a normal pregnancy outcome. However, it is unknown if the changes in maternal plasma fetuin-A concentrations precede the clinical diagnosis of the disease. We conducted a longitudinal study to determine whether patients who subsequently developed PE had a different profile of maternal plasma concentrations of fetuin-A as a function of gestational age (GA) than those with uncomplicated pregnancies. Methods: A longitudinal case-control study was performed and included 200 singleton pregnancies in the following groups: (1) patients with uncomplicated pregnancies who delivered appropriate for gestational age (AGA) neonates (n = 160); and (2) patients who subsequently developed PE (n = 40). Longitudinal samples were collected at each prenatal visit and scheduled at 4-week intervals from the first or early second trimester until delivery. Plasma fetuin-A concentrations were determined by ELISA. Analysis was performed using mixed-effects models. Results: The profiles of maternal plasma concentrations of fetuin-A differ between PE and uncomplicated pregnancies. Forward analysis indicated that the rate of increase of plasma fetuin-A concentration in patients who subsequently developed PE was lower at the beginning of pregnancy (p = 0.001), yet increased faster mid-pregnancy (p = 0.0017) and reached the same concentration level as controls by 26 weeks. The rate of decrease was higher towards the end of pregnancy in patients with PE than in uncomplicated pregnancies (p = 0.002). The mean maternal plasma fetuin-A concentration was significantly lower in patients with preterm PE at the time of clinical diagnosis than in women with uncomplicated pregnancies (p < 0.05). In contrast, there were no significant differences in maternal plasma fetuin-A concentration in patients who developed PE at term. Conclusions: (1) The profile of maternal plasma concentrations of fetuin-A over time (GA) in patients who develop PE is different from that of normal pregnant women; (2) the rate of change of maternal plasma concentrations of fetuin-A is positive (increases over time) in the midtrimester of normal pregnancy, and negative (decreases over time) in patients who subsequently develop PE; (3) at the time of diagnosis, the maternal plasma fetuin-A concentration is lower in patients with preterm PE than in those with a normal pregnancy outcome; however, such differences were not demonstrable in patients with term PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piya Chaemsaithong
- Perinatology Research Branch, Program for Perinatal Research and Obstetrics, Division of Intramural Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development , NIH, Bethesda, Maryland and Detroit, MI , USA
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Hawkins JS, Lo JY, Casey BM, McIntire DD, Leveno KJ. Diet-treated gestational diabetes mellitus: comparison of early vs routine diagnosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 198:287.e1-6. [PMID: 18313450 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2007.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2007] [Revised: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 11/26/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to compare pregnancy outcomes in women with diet-treated gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) that was diagnosed at < 24 weeks of gestation to those women who received the diagnosis at > or = 24 weeks of gestation. STUDY DESIGN This was a retrospective cohort study of 2596 women with diet-treated GDM who delivered between December 1999 and June 2005 at Parkland Hospital. Women with risk factors for GDM underwent immediate glucose screening; women without risk factors underwent universal glucose screening between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation. Women with diet-treated GDM that was diagnosed at < 24 weeks of gestation (n = 339; 13.1%) were compared with those women who received the diagnosis at > or = 24 weeks of gestation. RESULTS Women with an earlier diagnosis of diet-treated GDM were at increased risk of preeclampsia and the delivery of large infants. Even after adjustment for differences in maternal characteristics and glycemic control, the risk of preeclampsia persisted (odds ratio, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.5, 3.8). CONCLUSION Women with an early diagnosis of diet-treated GDM have a 2-fold increased risk of preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Seth Hawkins
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9032, USA.
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Lapolla A, Dalfrà MG, Bonomo M, Castiglioni MT, Di Cianni G, Masin M, Mion E, Paleari R, Schievano C, Songini M, Tocco G, Volpe L, Mosca A. Can plasma glucose and HbA1c predict fetal growth in mothers with different glucose tolerance levels? Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007; 77:465-70. [PMID: 17350135 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2007.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2006] [Accepted: 01/24/2007] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
To assess whether HbA1c and plasma glucose predicts abnormal fetal growth, 758 pregnant women attending 5 Diabetic Centers were screened for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). On glucose challenge (GCT) at 24-27 weeks of gestation (g.w.), negative cases formed the normal control group (N1). Positive cases took an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): those found negative were classed as false positives screening test (N2); if they had an OGTT result at least as high as their normal glucose levels, they were classed as having one abnormal glucose value (OAV) at OGTT; two values as GDM. HbA1c was assayed on the day of GCT. We considered fetal macrosomia, large for gestational age (LGA), ponderal index and mean growth percentile. Mean age, pre-pregnancy BMI, fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and HbA1c were progressively higher from N1 to GDM patients. The newborn of N2 mothers were heavier than those with N1 or GDM. The mean growth percentile was significantly higher in N2 than in N1. More LGA babies were born to OAV than to N1 or N2 women. Macrosomia and ponderal index did not differ significantly in the four groups. At logistic regression only plasma glucose at GCT could predict LGA babies and a ponderal index above 2.85. At risk analysis, GDM and OAV significantly predicted LGA babies, and GDM a ponderal index >2.85. In conclusion, FPG at GCT could predict fetal overgrowth and plasma glucose >85mg/dl doubles the risk of LGA infants. HbA1c at 24-27g.w. does not predict fetal overgrowth. Mild alterations in glucose tolerance correlate with fetal overgrowth and needs monitoring and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lapolla
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Chirurgiche-Cattedra di Malattie del Metabolismo, Università di Padova, Via Giustinuani n. 2, 35100 Padua, Italy.
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Smirnakis KV, Plati A, Wolf M, Thadhani R, Ecker JL. Predicting gestational diabetes: choosing the optimal early serum marker. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 196:410.e1-6; discussion 410.e6-7. [PMID: 17403439 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2006.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2006] [Accepted: 12/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Serum markers measured early in pregnancy have been associated with the later diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus. To select an optimal early (<20 weeks) marker, we prospectively compared 3 serum markers examined simultaneously in a single cohort. STUDY DESIGN A nested case-control design was used to evaluate the association of sex hormone-binding globulin, high-sensitive C-reactive protein, and measures of fasting glucose and insulin (homeostasis assessment model) obtained in the late first trimester and early second trimester of pregnancy with the diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus. Multivariate modeling and log likelihood ratios were used to identify the optimal biomarker associated with gestational diabetes mellitus. RESULTS In both first and second trimester samples, sex hormone-binding globulin was lower and high-sensitive C-reactive protein higher among women who subsequently developed gestational diabetes mellitus. Similarly an elevated second-trimester homeostasis assessment model was associated with gestational diabetes mellitus. Multivariate analysis suggested that sex hormone-binding globulin measured from nonfasting first-trimester sera was the best predictor of gestational diabetes mellitus in our population. CONCLUSION Among 3 biomarkers examined prospectively, first-trimester nonfasting sex hormone-binding globulin appeared to be the optimal marker to predict subsequent gestational diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen V Smirnakis
- Renal Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Barahona MJ, Sucunza N, García-Patterson A, Hernández M, Adelantado JM, Ginovart G, De Leiva A, Corcoy R. Period of gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosis and maternal and fetal morbidity. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2005; 84:622-7. [PMID: 15954869 DOI: 10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00634.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of the study was to analyze the association between the period of diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and maternal and neonatal outcome. METHODS In this retrospective study, 1708 offspring (1571 singleton, 119 twins, and 18 triplets) born to women with GDM who attended the Diabetic and Pregnancy Clinic were included. Pregnancies were divided into three groups according to the gestational age at GDM diagnosis. The association of the period of diagnosis with maternal and fetal outcome was assessed adjusting for potentially confounding variables (logistic regression analysis). RESULTS The period of diagnosis was a predictor in two out of three maternal outcomes (pregnancy-induced hypertension and insulin treatment) and in four out of 12 fetal outcomes (preterm birth, 5-min Apgar <7, perinatal mortality, and hyperbilirubinemia). Whereas pregnancy-induced hypertension was higher in women diagnosed with GDM in the second period, the other outcomes displayed higher occurrences with earlier diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS Diagnosis of GDM earlier in pregnancy is a predictor of adverse maternal and neonatal outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Barahona
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital de al Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
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Maegawa Y, Sugiyama T, Kusaka H, Mitao M, Toyoda N. Screening tests for gestational diabetes in Japan in the 1st and 2nd trimester of pregnancy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2003; 62:47-53. [PMID: 14581157 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-8227(03)00146-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the utility and characteristics of various screening procedures for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in Japan during the first trimester and between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy. The subjects were 749 pregnant women who came to our hospitals. A 50-g oral glucose challenge test (GCT), casual plasma glucose measurements, fasting blood glucose measurements, and glycosylated hemoglobin measurements were performed in the first trimester. Subjects with no abnormalities were tested again at 24-28 weeks of gestation. Of the 749 subjects, 22 (2.9%) tested positive for GDM. Of those 22 patients, 14 were diagnosed with GDM in the first trimester (63.6%) and eight in the second trimester (36.4%). This finding suggests the importance of screening for glucose intolerance in the first trimester. Furthermore, it appears that the GCT has the most utility for GDM screening; the other screening methods tested were not as useful because of their low sensitivity, particularly in the second trimester.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Maegawa
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mie University School of Medicine, 2-174 Edobashi, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
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18
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19
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Ferrara A, Hedderson MM, Quesenberry CP, Selby JV. Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus detected by the national diabetes data group or the carpenter and coustan plasma glucose thresholds. Diabetes Care 2002; 25:1625-30. [PMID: 12196438 DOI: 10.2337/diacare.25.9.1625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In 2000, the American Diabetes Association proposed the adoption of the Carpenter and Coustan criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The Carpenter and Coustan cutoffs are lower than the previously recommended National Diabetes Data Group (NDDG) values and would result in higher prevalence of GDM. Our aim is to estimate the magnitude of change in prevalence of GDM using the Carpenter and Coustan thresholds as compared with the NDDG thresholds by age and ethnicity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Cross-sectional study of 28,330 women aged 14-49 years who gave birth in 1996 and were members of the Northern California Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program. Age, ethnicity, screening, and diagnostic test results were assessed from computerized hospitalization and laboratory systems. RESULTS A total of 26,481 (94%) women were screened using a 50-g, 1-h oral glucose tolerance test, and 4,190 women underwent a diagnostic 100-g, 3-h oral glucose tolerance test after an abnormal screening. Overall, the GDM prevalence among screened women was 3.2% (95% CI 3.0-3.4) by NDDG and 4.8% (95% CI 4.5-5.1) by Carpenter and Coustan criteria, and based on either threshold, it increased with age (P < 0.001). The age-adjusted GDM prevalence by NDDG and Carpenter and Coustan criteria, respectively, was 5.0 and 7.4% in Asians, 3.9 and 5.6% in Hispanics, 3.0 and 4.0% in African-Americans, and 2.4 and 3.8% in whites. Proportional increments were larger in women aged <25 years (70%) and in whites (58%). CONCLUSIONS -The prevalence of GDM increased, on average, by 50% with use of the Carpenter and Coustan thresholds. Relative increments were greater in low-risk age and ethnic groups. This information would be useful for clinical settings in predicting cost of GDM based on demographic characteristics of the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assiamira Ferrara
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente, Oakland, California 94611, USA.
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20
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Jiménez-Moleón JJ, Bueno-Cavanillas A, Luna-del-Castillo JDD, García-Martín M, Lardelli-Claret P, Gálvez-Vargas R. Impact of different levels of carbohydrate intolerance on neonatal outcomes classically associated with gestational diabetes mellitus. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2002; 102:36-41. [PMID: 12039087 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-2115(01)00575-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the influence of different levels of carbohydrate intolerance on neonatal outcomes. STUDY DESIGN The cohort constituted by the 1962 pregnant women screened for gestational diabetes who gave birth at the University Hospital of Granada (Spain) in the year 1995 was followed retrospectively. Women were classified into three groups: diagnosis of gestational diabetes, positive screen but non-gestational diabetes, and negative screen. Frequency of adverse newborn outcomes were quantified for each group and compared for statistical significance. RESULTS Gestational diabetes was associated with a greater incidence of high birth weight, hypoglycemia and hypocalcemia. Adequate metabolic control of the illness reduced the risk of adverse outcomes. Birth weight traced a positive slope with respect to the degree of carbohydrate intolerance. Regardless of carbohydrate intolerance, macrosomia was always higher among gravidae with gestational diabetes risk factors than among women without them. CONCLUSION Both maternal gestational diabetes risk factors and greater carbohydrate intolerance in gravidae are associated with an increase in adverse newborn outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José J Jiménez-Moleón
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Facultad de Mecicina, Universidad de Granada, Avda. de Madrid 11, 18012 Granada, Spain.
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Solomon CG, Seely EW. Brief review: hypertension in pregnancy : a manifestation of the insulin resistance syndrome? Hypertension 2001; 37:232-9. [PMID: 11230277 DOI: 10.1161/01.hyp.37.2.232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), which includes both gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, is a common and morbid pregnancy complication for which the pathogenesis remains unclear. Emerging evidence suggests that insulin resistance, which has been linked to essential hypertension, may play a role in PIH. Conditions associated with increased insulin resistance, including gestational diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome, and obesity, may predispose to hypertensive pregnancy. Furthermore, metabolic abnormalities linked to the insulin resistance syndrome are also observed in women with PIH to a greater degree than in normotensive pregnant women: These include glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, hyperlipidemia, and high levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, leptin, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. These observations suggest the possibility that insulin resistance may be involved in the pathogenesis of PIH and that approaches that improve insulin sensitivity might have benefit in the prevention or treatment of this syndrome, although this requires further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Solomon
- Division of Women's Health, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Simmons D, Thompson CF, Conroy C. Incidence and risk factors for neonatal hypoglycaemia among women with gestational diabetes mellitus in South Auckland. Diabet Med 2000; 17:830-4. [PMID: 11168324 DOI: 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2000.00399.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To describe the incidence and risk factors for neonatal hypoglycaemia among the offspring of women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in South Auckland, New Zealand METHODS A retrospective audit was undertaken of singleton pregnancies delivered between 1991 and 1994. Data were obtained for 373 women and their deliveries (57 European, 76 Maori, 198 Pacific Islands, 42 other). RESULTS Pacific Islands women were most likely to have large babies with neonatal hypoglycaemia in spite of a high use of insulin. Postnatally Maori and Pacific Islands women had a high incidence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (21.4, 21.7 vs. 4.3% Europeans, 12.0% others, P =0.035). Babies experiencing hypoglycaemia were more likely to have a mother with past GDM (51.2 vs. 27.2%, P = 0.01) and greater hyperglycaemia (at diagnosis fasting 6.8 +/- 1.7 vs. 5.7 +/- 1.1 mmol/l, P < 0.001; finger-prick glucose 5.7 +/- 1.0 vs. 5.2 +/- 0.8 mmol/l, P < 0.001). Macrosomia, Caesarian section and special care baby unit admission were more common in pregnancies complicated by neonatal hypoglycaemia. CONCLUSIONS Maternal hyperglycaemia was a major contributing factor to neonatal hypoglycaemia in this population. Undiagnosed Type 2 diabetes was common among Maori and Pacific Islands women, confirming the need for earlier detection and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Simmons
- Department of Rural Health, University of Melbourne, Shepparton, Victoria, Australia.
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Vogel N, Burnand B, Vial Y, Ruiz J, Paccaud F, Hohlfeld P. Screening for gestational diabetes: variation in guidelines. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2000; 91:29-36. [PMID: 10817875 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-2115(99)00248-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare published guidelines concerning screening for gestational diabetes. STUDY DESIGN Systematic search and comparative analysis of published guidelines. Appraisal of guidelines quality. Simulation analysis. RESULTS Ten published guidelines proposed either universal screening (5), selective screening (3) or screening when clinically indicated (2). Variations of testing schedules and blood glucose thresholds were observed. The quality of the published guidelines was low, on average 22 (8-51) percentage points on the assessment scale. These differences would have led to large variations in the number of patients to be screened. CONCLUSIONS Large variations between guidelines have been observed which would translate in large practice variations, if the guidelines were systematically applied. These variations are partially explained by the absence of definite evidence that universal or selective screening for gestational diabetes do more good than harm on infant and maternal health. The methodology of developing guidelines should be more evidence based, systematic and explicit.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Vogel
- Institut universitaire de médecine sociale et préventive, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Abstract
PURPOSE This study examined predictors of macrosomia in a multiethnic sample of 213 low-income women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) after week 24 of their pregnancy. METHODS Medical records were reviewed retrospectively. Variables examined were mother's height, weight history, educational level, age at diagnosis, weeks at diagnosis and delivery, type of diabetes, mean fasting blood glucose (FBG), and infant's weight, sex, and Apgar scores. RESULTS Fifty-one percent of babies were macrosomic. Weight gain, nonpregnant weight, weight at delivery, FBG, and Apgar scores at 1 minute were associated with macrosomia, especially in Hispanic women. Logistic regression revealed that nonpregnant weight was the strongest predictor of macrosomia. CONCLUSIONS Nonobese GDM mothers with optimal weight gain but with high FBG levels > 90 mg/dL may be at risk for macrosomia. The major concerns with obese GDM mothers are nonpregnant weight and high blood glucose levels, in this order. Education for women with GDM should target these risk factors to decrease macrosomia.
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Jang HC, Cho NH, Jung KB, Oh KS, Dooley SL, Metzger BE. Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus in Korea. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1995; 51:115-22. [PMID: 8635631 DOI: 10.1016/0020-7292(95)02524-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To examine the effect of clinical characteristics on the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to find the most effective screening program for GDM in Korea. METHODS Universal screening with a 50-g glucose load at 24-28 weeks' gestation, as recommended by the Third International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus, was carried out among 3581 consecutive Korean women. Women with a 1-h plasma glucose > or = 130 mg/dl underwent a 3-h 100-g oral glucose tolerance test. The women's clinical characteristics and risk factors for GDM were recorded at the time of the screening test. RESULTS The overall prevalence of GDM in Korean women was 2.2 cases/100. Although only 1.3% of this population was obese, the prevalence of GDM was found to be significantly increased with increasing body mass index. When 135 mg/dl is used as a threshold, the number of women requiring a diagnostic test decreases to 19.5%, enabling identification of 98.8% of women with GDM. CONCLUSION Universal screening using 135 mg/dl as a threshold and early screening of those with two or more risk factors represent the most effective paradigm for Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Jang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Cheil General Hospital, Seoul, Korea
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Koukkou E, Taub N, Jackson P, Metcalfe G, Cameron M, Lowy C. Difference in prevalence of gestational diabetes and perinatal outcome in an innercity multiethnic London population. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995; 59:153-7. [PMID: 7657009 DOI: 10.1016/0028-2243(95)02043-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In order to establish the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) among ethnic groups residing in the catchment area of one hospital in central London and to assess both the mode of delivery and the baby outcome, we studied retrospectively 703 women selected for screening for GDM during the years 1991 and 1992. While the prevalence of GDM was approximately 2% overall, within the ethnic groups a significant difference was found with Asians and Africans/Afrocaribbeans being four and two times more likely to have GDM, respectively, than Caucasians (P < 0.001). Both maternal obesity and the diagnosis of GDM influenced the time and the mode of delivery, but perinatal mortality and morbidity did not differ significantly between women with GDM and women with normal glucose tolerance. An association between the GTT glucose area and the gestational age and ethnicity adjusted birth weight was observed in women with normal glucose tolerance test, but was absent in the GDM pregnancies, providing indirect evidence that dietary treatment, with or without insulin treatment, altered the maternal milieu in the latter sufficiently to modify fetal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Koukkou
- Division of Medicine, UMDS, London, UK
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