Concomitant use of glucocorticoids: a comparison of two metaanalyses on antibiotic treatment in preterm premature rupture of membranes

Morganella morganii, a non-negligent opportunistic pathogen

Morganella morganii belongs to the tribe Proteeae of the Enterobacteriaceae family. This species is considered as an unusual opportunistic pathogen that mainly causes post-operative wound and urinary tract infections. However, certain clinical M. morganii isolates present resistance to multiple antibiotics by carrying various resistant genes (such as blaNDM-1, and qnrD1), thereby posing a serious challenge for clinical infection control. Moreover, virulence evolution makes M. morganii an important pathogen. Accumulated data have demonstrated that M. morganii can cause various infections, such as sepsis, abscess, purple urine bag syndrome, chorioamnionitis, and cellulitis. This bacterium often results in a high mortality rate in patients with some infections. M. morganii is considered as a non-negligent opportunistic pathogen because of the increased levels of resistance and virulence. In this review, we summarized the epidemiology of M. morganii, particularly on its resistance profile and resistant genes, as well as the disease spectrum and risk factors for its infection.

[Rupture of membranes: pathophysiology, diagnosis, consequences and management]

Rupture of membranes (ROM) depends on mechanical stretch, extracellular matrix components imbalance and increased apoptosis. It occurs in 2 to 3% of all pregnancies before 37 weeks' gestation (WG) and in up to 10% at term. Main consequences are labor induction and risk of maternal-fetal infection. ROM is associated with one third of preterm births and about 20% of perinatal mortality. This review deals with recent knowledge concerning ROM including diagnosis and management. In many cases, ROM is easily identified by clinical examination. In other cases, the use of vaginal pH appears to be less efficient than the use of immunochromatographic strips based on IGFBP-1 or PAMG-1 detection. Before 34WG, conservative management consists in in utero transfer, antibioprophylaxis and corticosteroids. After 37WG, delivery is the most appropriate option. Between 34 and 37WG, recent studies demonstrate that induction of labour does not improve pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, expectant management can be the first option between 34 and 37WG when no active infection is suspected especially in case of unfavourable cervix.

Dosage regimen of antenatal steroids prior to preterm delivery and effects on maternal and neonatal outcomes

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of two betamethasone dosage regimens on selected parameters in mothers and on the status of the preterm newborn.

METHODS

The analysis included 121 patients who gave birth by gestational week 35 and within 7 days after the completion of a full course of steroid treatment (24 mg). The study group consisted of 45 patients receiving six 4-mg doses of betamethasone every 8 h. The control group consisted of 76 patients receiving two 12-mg doses of betamethasone separated by 24 h.

RESULTS

After treatment, a significant increase in the leukocyte count was observed in the control group. Significant reductions in the erythrocyte counts, hemoglobin levels and hematocrit after treatment were also found in the control group. The post-natal status of newborns did not differ significantly between groups. The betamethasone dosage regimen used did not affect the incidence of moderate and severe respiratory disorders, intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), retinopathy (ROP), infection, hyperbilirubinemia or anemia in neonates. Mild respiratory disorders were slightly more common in the study group.

CONCLUSION

A reduction in the single steroid dose administered to patients at risk of premature birth may reduce maternal side-effects.

[Premature rupture of membranes before 32 weeks of gestation: prenatal prognosis factors]

OBJECTIVE

Premature preterm rupture of membranes (PPROM) accounts for a significant part of overall perinatal mortality and morbidity. This study aims to define potential prognostic factors for neonatal outcome.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

One hundred and thirty-one pregnancies complicated with PPROM at between 26 and 32 weeks were retrospectively reviewed over a three-year period. The influence of chorioamnionitis on perinatal morbidity and mortality was assessed using a composite outcome.

RESULTS

On admission, gestational age (GA) at diagnosis, fetal heart rate anomalies and increasing severity of clinical features of chorioamnionitis were significantly related with an adverse outcome. Significant factors associated with a favourable outcome were an administration of steroids for lung maturation, prophylactic antibiotics and tocolytic therapies. Stratifying according to GA at PPROM, the survival rates were 43 and 52% at before 22 weeks and between 22 and 26 weeks respectively. The prognosis dramatically improved after 26 weeks with an 84.6% rate of survival without impairment. Although this rate reached 97.5% after 30 weeks, there was no statistical evidence supporting any benefit to prolong pregnancies beyond this point. The complete expression of chorioamnionitis independently increased the mortality rate by 41% (OR=1.41; 95% CI [0.99-2.01]. Overall, the most relevant factor was GA at delivery, levelling the prognostic value of GA at diagnosis.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

If no consensus rules PPROM at the moment, the most efficient prognosis factor before 34 weeks is mostly determined by GA at delivery.

A prospective population-based study of 598 cases of PPROM between 24 and 34 weeks' gestation: description, management, and mortality (DOMINOS cohort)

OBJECTIVE(S)

Description of mothers' characteristics, obstetricians' practices, and PPROM-linked mortality in all 81 maternity hospitals in the Rhône-Alpes Region, over a period of 2 years.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study of 598 women with PPROM between 24 and 34 weeks' gestation, leading to 680 births. At time of PPROM, collection of mothers' socio-economic characteristics, medical and obstetric histories and PPROM circumstances. Collection of perinatal management, neonates' medical status and postnatal referral.

RESULTS

The birth rate after PPROM between 24 and 34 weeks' gestation was 0.47% (95% CI: 0.42-0.48). Sixty percent of PPROM occurred before 32 weeks' gestation and 98% of births before 37 weeks. The incidence of previous PPROM was 14.3%. Antibiotics, corticosteroids, and tocolytics were given to 82, 78, and 52% of women, respectively. The rate of antibiotics and antenatal corticosteroids varied with gestational age (lower rates for antibiotics just after the limit of viability (23-24 weeks) and after 32 weeks, higher rates of corticosteroids between 26 and 30 weeks). The PPROM-birth interval became shorter as gestation advanced. The incidence of C-section was 58.7% (n = 270), C-section before labour being the most frequent mode of delivery. Sixty-seven percent of neonates were born in Level-3 hospitals. The overall neonatal mortality rate at 28 days decreased with gestational age at PPROM, and was 17.2% (16/93), 3% (6/200), and 0.41% (1/241) at 24-27, 28-31 and 32-33 weeks of PPROM, respectively.

CONCLUSION(S)

After PPROM, antibiotics and antenatal corticosteroids were widely used in our cohort, and C-section rates were elevated. With that up-to-date management, the perinatal mortality rate was less than 3% following PPROM after 28 weeks' gestation.

Effect of antenatal corticosteroid and antibiotics in pregnancies complicated by premature rupture of membranes between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation

The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of active intervention with antenatal maternal corticosteroid and antibiotics therapy in infants delivered between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation after premature rupture of membrane. This retrospective study included pregnant women complicated by preterm delivery at the Dong-A University Hospital from 1998 to 2002. Patients were divided into labor induction group 1 (n=20), observation group 2 (n=19), and medication group 3 (n=20). We evaluated the effects of prolongation of pregnancy and intervention with maternal corticosteroids and antibiotics therapy on perinatal and neonatal outcomes. Each group did not have a significant difference (p<0.05) in neonatal outcomes, such as respiratory distress syndrome, intraventricular hemorrhage, necrotizing enterocolitis, retinopathy of prematurity, pneumonia, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and sepsis. The mean latency period was 4.7 days and 7.6 days in groups 2 and 3, respectively. Therefore, this study was unable to demonstrate any beneficial effects of corticosteroids in improving neonatal outcomes and prolongation of the latency period with antibiotics.

Single Versus Weekly Courses of Antenatal Corticosteroids in Preterm Premature Rupture of Membranes

OBJECTIVE

This study was performed to evaluate the efficacy of weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids compared with a single course in women with preterm premature rupture of membranes (PROM).

METHODS

A planned secondary analysis of women with preterm PROM who participated in a multicenter, randomized trial of weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids versus single-course therapy was performed. After their first course of standard antenatal steroid therapy, administered between 24 to 32-6/7 weeks of gestation, consenting women were randomly assigned to receive betamethasone versus placebo injections weekly until 34-0/7 weeks of gestation. Maternal and neonatal morbidities were compared between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

Of the 161 women with preterm PROM, 81 women were assigned to receive weekly courses of steroids and 80 to the single-course group. There were no significant differences in composite morbidity between the groups (27 [34.2%] of 81 patients versus 33 [41.8%] of 80 patients, P =.41). Chorioamnionitis was higher in patients who received weekly courses of antenatal steroids (39 [49.4%] of 81 patients versus 25 [31.7%] of 80 patients, P =.04).

CONCLUSION

Weekly courses of antenatal steroids in women with preterm PROM did not improve neonatal outcomes beyond that achieved with single-course therapy and was associated with an increased risk of chorioamnionitis. Antenatal steroid therapy should not be routinely repeated in patients with preterm PROM.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

I

Effect of maternal antibiotic treatment on fetal periventricular white matter cell death in a rabbit intrauterine infection model

AIM

To evaluate the effects of maternal antibiotic treatment on fetal brain cell death in a rabbit intrauterine infection model.

METHODS

After Escherichia coli uterine-horn inoculation in 22 pregnant rabbits, followed at various times by ceftriaxone and caesarean section, cell death in white matter (histology and fragmented DNA staining) from fetuses killed at extraction was compared across groups using the Mantel-Haenszel test and Fisher's exact test for small numbers.

RESULTS

White matter cell death was consistently present at 48 h, with ceftriaxone initiation at 24 h (group 1), detectable at 84 but not 60 h, with ceftriaxone initiation at 12 h, and significantly reduced at 84 h with ceftriaxone initiation at 6 h (60% vs 100% in group 1, p < 0.001, Fisher's exact test).

CONCLUSION

Early maternal antibiotic therapy delays white matter cell death in rabbit fetuses exposed to intrauterine infection. This may provide a window for preventing white matter damage.

Controversies in the use of antenatal steroids for fetal maturation

After decades of caution and reticence, by the early 1990s, the use of antenatal corticosteroids was accepted as a pharmacologic intervention to reduce neonatal morbidity and mortality associated with prematurity. Many prospective studies yielded robust evidence to support the use of corticosteroids for fetal maturation. Their use is no longer disputed. Nevertheless, many unanswered questions remain regarding issues such as the ideal dose, drug form, regimen, or timing of treatment. This article explores many of the unanswered questions associated with antenatal corticosteroid use.

Antibiotics and the management of preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes

Preterm premature rupture of membranes remains an important cause of preterm birth and neonatal morbidity and mortality. Although the underlying pathophysiology remains largely undefined, subclinical infection has been implicated both in the mechanism of membrane rupture and the resultant neonatal morbidity. The use of maternal systemic antibiotics reduces both neonatal and maternal morbidity in the expectant management of PPROM. Although concern persists over the development of resistant strains of organisms involved with neonatal sepsis, current data support the use of antibiotics in this setting. Further study is needed regarding the risks and benefits of additional tocolytic therapy or antenatal corticosteroids in the management of PPROM, and the predictors of successful and unsuccessful conservative management, and subclinical intrauterine infection. This will be helpful in the ultimate delineation of the optimal management scheme for PPROM.

Antenatal corticosteroids in women with preterm premature rupture of the membranes

The authors believe that the literature provides sufficient evidence that antenatal corticosteroid administration is beneficial and safe even in conditions of ruptured membranes. The evidence by now is remarkably robust and one can be reasonably confident regarding the benefits of antenatal corticosteroids in the setting of ruptured membranes. As recently stated by a group of investigators from New Zealand, including Liggins, the originator of this historical medical intervention (antepartum corticosteroids), the safety and efficacy of corticosteroids in conditions of ruptured membranes is beyond any doubt. It is time to accept this reality and to move on to other unresolved issues, like the optimal dose and corticosteroid preparation, the optimal timing of treatment, or the optimal exposure interval.

Does the combined antenatal use of corticosteroids and antibiotics increase late-onset neonatal sepsis in the very low birth weight infant?

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the combined use of maternal antenatal corticosteroids and antibiotic therapy is associated with an increased risk of late-onset neonatal sepsis among very low birth weight infants.

STUDY DESIGN

The outcomes of infants admitted to the 3 Cincinnati neonatal intensive care units between May 1991 and May 2000 were retrospectively evaluated. Late-onset neonatal sepsis was defined either as the occurrence of a positive blood culture obtained after 72 hours of life with clinical signs of sepsis or as the need for >5 consecutive days of antibiotic therapy for presumed sepsis that initiated after 72 hours of life. Wilcoxon rank sum, chi-square test, and multiple logistic regression were used for analysis.

RESULTS

Among the parturients delivering the study infants, 434 women (24%) received corticosteroids only, 175 women (9%) received antibiotics only, 819 women (46%) received both corticosteroids and antibiotics, and 370 women (20%) received neither corticosteroids nor antibiotics. Among 1978 study infants, there were 732 infants (41%) with late-onset neonatal sepsis. By univariate analysis, the odds ratio for late-onset neonatal sepsis caused by combined corticosteroid and antibiotic use was 0.96 (95% CI, 0.89%, 1.04%). Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the risk of combined corticosteroids and antibiotic use after controlling for potential covariates and confounders. After controlling for outborn birth (odds ratio, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.0%-1.8%), increasing gestational age at delivery (odds ratio, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.60%-0.66%), interaction between white race and male gender (P =.01) and interaction between antibiotics and prolonged rupture of membranes (P =.02), the use of corticosteroids and antibiotics was not associated with an increased risk of late-onset neonatal sepsis (P =.9).

CONCLUSION

The combined use of maternal corticosteroids and antibiotic therapy is not associated with an increased risk for late-onset neonatal sepsis.

Premature rupture of the fetal membranes. An update for advanced practice nurses

Advanced practice nurses in obstetric settings are frequently required to diagnose premature rupture of fetal membranes; co-management of care with physicians is becoming more common in many health care facilities. Therefore, Advanced practice nurses must have an in-depth understanding of this potentially severe obstetric complication. This article presents a review of the current literature focusing on the epidemiology, physiology, pathophysiology, prevention measures, subjective and objective assessment, diagnostic tests, and management of premature rupture of membranes. Psychosocial aspects of this event, often upsetting for the family, are also discussed.

Rupture of membranes before 26 weeks of gestation: outcome of 148 consecutive cases

AIMS

To assess the outcome of preterm prelabor rupture of the membranes (PPROM) before 26 weeks of gestation and to develop a prediction model for survival.

METHODS

148 consecutive cases of PPROM before 26 weeks of gestation, collected between 1988 and 1996, were retrospectively analyzed. A multivariate analysis (generalized estimating equations) of 21 process and 5 short and long term outcome variables was performed.

RESULTS

40 out of 148 children (27%) died before or during birth, 57 (38.5%) of the children survived more than 28 days, from which still 5 died after one month. Amongst the 52 survivors (35.1%), the Bayley Mental Development Index and Psychomotor Development Index at a corrected age of 7 months was normal in respectively 85.7% and 75.5% of the cases. At 6-7 years of age, 24 out of 33 children (73%) performed adequately at school. Sex, gestational age at PPROM, birth weight, the administration of steroids and interactions of steroid administration with sex and with gestational age at the time of PPROM largely determined the chances of survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall fetal survival after PPROM before 26 weeks of gestation was 35.1%. Survival can be predicted with an accuracy of 75%, a sensitivity of 85% and a specificity of 60%. More than 70% of the survivors behaved and performed adequately at school age, but 27% require special long-term attention and care.

Recent advances in the pathophysiology and management of preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes

During the past few years, meaningful progress has been achieved in our understanding of the pathophysiology of preterm premature rupture of membranes. In addition, more evidence has been presented in favor of induction and delivery for rupture between 34 and 37 weeks and expectant management for rupture before 34 weeks. New approaches are being suggested to complement expectant management. The purpose of this article is to review this recent information about the pathophysiology and management of women with preterm premature rupture of membranes.

Recent advances in the therapeutic management of preterm labour

Preterm labour and delivery pose an increasing problem to the obstetrician. Improvements in tocolysis with the recent introduction of new therapeutic targeting strategies, and a reappraisal of the safety and relative efficacy of some older compounds, have led to a tendency away from prescribing beta-sympathomimetic agents. Infection prophylaxis and promotion of fetal lung maturity are deemed advantageous, but treatment protocols have not been clarified. This review examines the important publications of the past year in these areas.

Benefits of maternal corticosteroid therapy in infants weighing </=1000 grams at birth after preterm rupture of the amnion

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of antenatal maternal corticosteroid treatment on selected neonatal outcomes in infants weighing </=1000 g at birth after preterm rupture of membranes.

STUDY DESIGN

In a 1-year (1992-1993) prospective observational study, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network collected outcome data for 766 infants who did not have a major fetal anomaly and who had a birth weight </=1000 g (378 were born after preterm rupture of membranes). Only fetuses deemed potentially viable by the obstetrician were included in our analysis. Selected neonatal outcomes were compared between mothers who did and did not receive antenatal corticosteroids. Logistic regression variables included birth weight, sex, race, amnionitis, tocolytic therapies, mode of delivery, and surfactant use.

RESULTS

Two hundred fourteen of the 378 infants whose mothers had preterm rupture of membranes were deemed potentially viable; 62 of these mothers received antenatal steroids and 152 did not. Groups were similar with respect to gestational age, birth weight, race, amnionitis, and delivery mode. Women who received antenatal steroids were more likely to have received tocolysis (P <.001). Univariate and regression analyses controlling for multiple confounders confirmed no neonatal benefits of maternal corticosteroid use.

CONCLUSIONS

Corticosteroid treatment in women with preterm rupture of membranes was of no apparent benefit to neonates weighing </=1000 g.