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Bao H, Cheng S, Li X, Li Y, Yu C, Huang J, Zhang Z. Functional Au nanoparticles for engineering and long-term CT imaging tracking of mesenchymal stem cells in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis treatment. Biomaterials 2022; 288:121731. [PMID: 35970616 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) therapy has always been a big and long-standing challenge in clinical practice due to the lack of miraculous medicine. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-based therapy has recently emerged as a promising candidate for redefining IPF therapy. Enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of MSCs and understanding of their growth, migration and differentiation in harsh lung microenviroments are two keys to improving the stem cell-based IPF treatment. Herein, a non-viral dual-functional nanocarrier is fabricated by a one-pot approach, using protamine sulfate stabilized Au nanoparticles (AuPS), to genetically engineer MSCs for simultaneous IPF treatment and monitoring the biological behavior of the MSCs. AuPS exhibits superior cellular uptake ability, which results in efficient genetic engineering of MSCs to overexpress hepatocyte growth factor for enhanced IPF therapy. In parallel, the intracellular accumulation of AuPS improves the CT imaging contrast of MSCs, allowing visual tracking of the therapeutic engineered MSCs up to 48 days. Overall, this work has described for the first time a novel strategy for enhanced therapeutic efficacy and long-term CT imaging tracking of transplanted MSCs in IPF therapy, providing great prospect for stem cell therapy of lung disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongying Bao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Shengnan Cheng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Xiaodi Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Yuxuan Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Chenggong Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Jie Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.
| | - Zhijun Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China; School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.
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Kanno Y, Shu E. α2-Antiplasmin as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Systemic Sclerosis. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12030396. [PMID: 35330147 PMCID: PMC8953682 DOI: 10.3390/life12030396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic sclerosis is a connective tissue disease of unknown origin that is characterized by immune system abnormalities, vascular damage, and extensive fibrosis of the skin and visceral organs. α2-antiplasmin is known to be the main plasmin inhibitor and has various functions such as cell differentiation and cytokine production, as well as the regulation of the maintenance of the immune system, endothelial homeostasis, and extracellular matrix metabolism. The expression of α2-antiplasmin is elevated in dermal fibroblasts from systemic sclerosis patients, and the blockade of α2-antiplasmin suppresses fibrosis progression and vascular dysfunction in systemic sclerosis model mice. α2-antiplasmin may have promise as a potential therapeutic target for systemic sclerosis. This review considers the role of α2-antiplasmin in the progression of systemic sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Kanno
- Department of Clinical Pathological Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts, 97-1 Kodo Kyotanabe, Kyoto 610-0395, Japan
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.:+81-0774-65-8629
| | - En Shu
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan;
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Antifibrotic therapy by sustained release of low molecular weight heparin from poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles on bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19019. [PMID: 33149192 PMCID: PMC7642430 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-76034-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) have recently been considered useful treatment tools for inflammation. Heparin has antifibrotic activity, mediated by cellular secretion of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). HGF has antifibrotic properties demonstrated in experimental models of lung, kidney, heart, skin, and liver fibrosis. The ability of LMWH for HGF secretion is similar to that of normal heparin. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is widely used for sustained drug release, because of its biocompatibility and low toxicity. LMWH-loaded PLGA microparticles are prepared by a conventional water-in-oil-in-water emulsion method. Interstitial pneumonia is a life-threatening pathological condition that causes respiratory failure when it progresses. In the present study, we investigated the therapeutic effect of LMWH-loaded PLGA microparticles in a mouse model of bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis. The ratios of fibrotic area to total area were significantly lower in mice administered LMWH-loaded microparticles than in mice administered bleomycin alone. The microparticle administration did not further enhance the gene expression for inflammatory cytokines. In a cell culture study, HGF secretion by mouse and human lung fibroblasts was significantly increased by LMWH addition. We conclude that LMWH showed anti-inflammatory activity, through the effects of LMWH-loaded PLGA microparticles on cells at sites of inflammation.
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Feng Z, Liu S, Chen Q, Tan Q, Xian J, Feng H, Chen Z, Li G. uPA alleviates kaolin-induced hydrocephalus by promoting the release and activation of hepatocyte growth factor in rats. Neurosci Lett 2020; 731:135011. [PMID: 32497735 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) was demonstrated to alleviate kaolin-induced communicating hydrocephalus via inhibiting subarachnoid space fibrosis, but the exact mechanism remains elusive. Thus, this study was designed to investigate if hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which plays a vital role in uPA-triggered inhibiting of fibrosis in multiple systems, is involved in this process in hydrocephalus. There were 2 parts in this study. First, hydrocephalus was induced in rats by basal cistern injection of kaolin. Then rats were treated with saline or uPA and brain tissue and CSF were collected for Western blot and enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA) four days later. Second, kaolin-induced hydrocephalus rats were treated with saline, uPA, uPA + PHA665752 (antagonist of HGF) or PHA665752. Some animals received MRI four weeks later and brains were used for immunofluorescence. The others were euthanized four days later for ELISA. Both levels of total and activated HGF in the CSF was increased after uPA injections, but related mRNA expression of HGF showed no statistical significance when compared with the control group. Further, the effects of uPA that alleviating ventricular enlargement, subarachnoid fibrosis and reactive astrocytosis were partially reversed by PHA665752. Moreover, PHA665752 partially abolished uPA-induced reduction of transforming growth factor- β1(TGF- β1) level in CSF. Our data suggest that uPA effectively inhibited subarachnoid fibrosis and restricted the development of communicating hydrocephalus in rats in part by promoting HGF release and activation, which may further regulate the TGF-β1 expression in CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Feng
- Department of Rehabilitation, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Shengyan Liu
- Chongqing Mental Health Center, Chongqing, 4001147, PR China
| | - Qianwei Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Qiang Tan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Jishu Xian
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Hua Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Zhi Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Cerebrovascular Disease, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi Medical University, Guizhou, 563003, PR China.
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Kanno Y, Shu E, Niwa H, Kanoh H, Seishima M. Alternatively activated macrophages are associated with the α2AP production that occurs with the development of dermal fibrosis : The role of alternatively activated macrophages on the development of fibrosis. Arthritis Res Ther 2020; 22:76. [PMID: 32272967 PMCID: PMC7146905 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-020-02159-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fibrotic diseases are characterized by tissue overgrowth, hardening, and/or scarring because of the excessive production, deposition, and contraction of the extracellular matrix (ECM). However, the detailed mechanisms underlying these disorders remain unclear. It was recently reported that α2-antiplasmin (α2AP) is elevated in fibrotic tissue and that it is associated with the development of fibrosis. In the present study, we examined the mechanism underlying the production of α2AP on the development of fibrosis. Methods To clarify the mechanism underlying the production of α2AP on the development of fibrosis, we focused on high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), which is associated with the development of fibrosis. The mouse model of bleomycin-induced fibrosis was used to evaluate the production of α2AP on the development of fibrosis. Results We found that HMGB1 induced the production of α2AP through receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) in fibroblasts. Next, we showed that macrophage reduction by a macrophage-depleting agent, clodronate, attenuated the progression of fibrosis and the production of α2AP and HMGB1 in the bleomycin-induced mice. We also showed that IL-4-stimulated alternatively activated macrophages induced the production of HMGB1, that IL-4-stimulated alternatively activated macrophage conditioned media (CM) induced pro-fibrotic changes and α2AP production, and that the inhibition of HMGB1 and RAGE attenuated these effects in fibroblasts. Furthermore, the blockade of IL-4 signaling by IL-4Rα neutralizing antibodies attenuated the progression of fibrosis and the production of α2AP and HMGB1 in the bleomycin-induced mice. Conclusion These findings suggest that alternatively activated macrophage-derived HMGB1 induced the production of α2AP through RAGE and that these effects are associated with the development of fibrosis. Our findings may provide a clinical strategy for managing fibrotic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Kanno
- Department of Clinical Pathological Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts, 97-1 Kodo Kyo-tanabe, Kyoto, 610-0395, Japan. .,Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1194, Japan.
| | - En Shu
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1194, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Niwa
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1194, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kanoh
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1194, Japan
| | - Mariko Seishima
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1194, Japan
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Horowitz JC, Tschumperlin DJ, Kim KK, Osterholzer JJ, Subbotina N, Ajayi IO, Teitz-Tennenbaum S, Virk A, Dotson M, Liu F, Sicard D, Jia S, Sisson TH. Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Overexpression Reverses Established Lung Fibrosis. Thromb Haemost 2019; 119:1968-1980. [PMID: 31705517 DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1697953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Impaired plasminogen activation (PA) is causally related to the development of lung fibrosis. Prior studies demonstrate that enhanced PA in the lung limits the severity of scarring following injury and in vitro studies indicate that PA promotes matrix degradation and fibroblast apoptosis. These findings led us to hypothesize that increased PA in an in vivo model would enhance the resolution of established lung fibrosis in conjunction with increased myofibroblast apoptosis. METHODS Transgenic C57BL/6 mice with doxycycline inducible lung-specific urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) expression or littermate controls were treated (day 0) with bleomycin or saline. Doxycycline was initiated on days 1, 9, 14, or 21. Lung fibrosis, stiffness, apoptosis, epithelial barrier integrity, and inflammation were assessed. RESULTS Protection from fibrosis with uPA upregulation from day 1 through day 28 was associated with reduced parenchymal stiffness as determined by atomic force microscopy. Initiation of uPA expression beginning in the late inflammatory or the early fibrotic phase reduced stiffness and fibrosis at day 28. Induction of uPA activity in mice with established fibrosis decreased lung collagen and lung stiffness while increasing myofibroblast apoptosis. Upregulation of uPA did not alter lung inflammation but was associated with improved epithelial cell homeostasis. CONCLUSION Restoring intrapulmonary PA activity diminishes lung fibrogenesis and enhances the resolution of established lung fibrosis. This PA-mediated resolution is associated with increased myofibroblast apoptosis and improved epithelial cell homeostasis. These studies support the potential capacity of the lung to resolve existing scar in murine models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey C Horowitz
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Daniel J Tschumperlin
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States
| | - Kevin K Kim
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - John J Osterholzer
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States.,Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Natalya Subbotina
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Iyabode O Ajayi
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Seagal Teitz-Tennenbaum
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States.,Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Ammara Virk
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Megan Dotson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Delphine Sicard
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States
| | - Shijing Jia
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Thomas H Sisson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
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Mierzejewski M, Korczynski P, Krenke R, Janssen JP. Chemical pleurodesis - a review of mechanisms involved in pleural space obliteration. Respir Res 2019; 20:247. [PMID: 31699094 PMCID: PMC6836467 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-019-1204-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical pleurodesis is a therapeutic procedure applied to create the symphysis between the parietal and visceral pleura by intrapleural administration of various chemical agents (e.g. talk, tetracycline, iodopovidone, etc.). The two major clinical conditions treated with chemical pleurodesis are recurrent pleural effusion (PE) and recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax. Although the history of chemical pleurodesis began over a century ago, detailed data on the mechanisms of action of sclerosing agents are highly incomplete. The following article aims to present the state of knowledge on this subject.It is believed that mesothelial cells are the main structural axis of pleurodesis. In response to sclerosing agents they secrete a variety of mediators including chemokines such as interleukin 8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1), as well as growth factors - vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and transforming growth factor- β (TGF-β). Numerous data suggest that intact mesothelial cells and the above cytokines play a crucial role in the initiation and maintenance of different pathways of pleural inflammation and pleural space obliteration.It seems that the process of pleurodesis is largely nonspecific to the sclerosant and involves the same ultimate pathways including activation of pleural cells, coagulation cascade, fibrin chain formation, fibroblast proliferation and production of collagen and extracellular matrix components. Of these processes, the coagulation cascade with decreased fibrinolytic activity and increased fibrinogenesis probably plays a pivotal role, at least during the early response to sclerosant administration.A better understanding of various pathways involved in pleurodesis may be a prerequisite for more effective and safe use of various sclerosants and for the development of new, perhaps more personalized therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Mierzejewski
- Department of Internal Medicine, Pulmonary Diseases & Allergy, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Korczynski
- Department of Internal Medicine, Pulmonary Diseases & Allergy, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Rafal Krenke
- Department of Internal Medicine, Pulmonary Diseases & Allergy, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Julius P Janssen
- Department of Pulmonary Diseases, Canisius-Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Wang Y, Ding L, Li Z, Chen G, Sun M, Oupicky D. Treatment of acute lung injury and early- and late-stage pulmonary fibrosis with combination emulsion siRNA polyplexes. J Control Release 2019; 314:12-24. [PMID: 31644934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Acute lung injury (ALI) and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) are severe lung diseases causing irreversible lung damage and premature death. Both diseases share multiple pathological features, including overexpression of C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) and upregulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). The goal of the present study was to evaluate therapeutic potential of pulmonary treatment with combined inhibition of CXCR4 and PAI-1 in ALI and various disease stages of IPF. We report preparation of perfluorocarbon emulsion polyplexes containing a fluorinated polymeric CXCR4 antagonist (F-PAMD) as an siRNA carrier suitable for pulmonary delivery. In vitro testing of the emulsion polyplexes in primary lung fibroblasts from IPF mice showed high cellular uptake and promising antifibrotic effect as indicated by the decreased expression of α smooth muscle actin, when compared with conventional siRNA polyplexes. Biodistribution analysis in mice with IPF showed prolonged lung retention and widespread lung distribution following intratracheal administration of the formulations. The emulsion polyplexes showed promising therapeutic efficacy in ALI and in early fibrinogenic stage of IPF. Increased survival was observed in the model of late-stage IPF. The use of perfluorocarbon emulsion polyplexes to achieve combined CXCR4 antagonism and PAI-1 inhibition is a promising strategy for treatment of ALI and IPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ling Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha NE 68198, USA
| | - Zhaoting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Gang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Minjie Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - David Oupicky
- Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha NE 68198, USA.
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Schuliga M, Grainge C, Westall G, Knight D. The fibrogenic actions of the coagulant and plasminogen activation systems in pulmonary fibrosis. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2018; 97:108-117. [PMID: 29474926 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2018.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Fibrosis causes irreversible damage to lung structure and function in restrictive lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Extravascular coagulation involving fibrin formation in the intra-alveolar compartment is postulated to have a pivotal role in the development of pulmonary fibrosis, serving as a provisional matrix for migrating fibroblasts. Furthermore, proteases of the coagulation and plasminogen activation (plasminergic) systems that form and breakdown fibrin respectively directly contribute to pulmonary fibrosis. The coagulants, thrombin and factor Xa (FXa) evoke fibrogenic effects via cleavage of the N-terminus of protease-activated receptors (PARs). Whilst the formation and activity of plasmin, the principle plasminergic mediator is suppressed in the airspaces of patients with IPF, localized increases are likely to occur in the lung interstitium. Plasmin-evoked proteolytic activation of factor XII (FXII), matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) and latent, matrix-bound growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF) indirectly implicate plasmin in pulmonary fibrosis. Another plasminergic protease, urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) is associated with regions of fibrosis in the remodelled lung of IPF patients and elicits fibrogenic activity via binding its receptor (uPAR). Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) formed in the injured alveolar epithelium also contributes to pulmonary fibrosis in a manner that involves vitronectin binding. This review describes the mechanisms by which components of the two systems primarily involved in fibrin homeostasis contribute to interstitial fibrosis, with a particular focus on IPF. Selectively targeting the receptor-mediated mechanisms of coagulant and plasminergic proteases may limit pulmonary fibrosis, without the bleeding complications associated with conventional anti-coagulant and thrombolytic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schuliga
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia; Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Christopher Grainge
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia; School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Glen Westall
- Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Prahran, Victoria, Australia
| | - Darryl Knight
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia; Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Canada
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Glodde N, Bald T, van den Boorn-Konijnenberg D, Nakamura K, O’Donnell JS, Szczepanski S, Brandes M, Eickhoff S, Das I, Shridhar N, Hinze D, Rogava M, van der Sluis TC, Ruotsalainen JJ, Gaffal E, Landsberg J, Ludwig KU, Wilhelm C, Riek-Burchardt M, Müller AJ, Gebhardt C, Scolyer RA, Long GV, Janzen V, Teng MW, Kastenmüller W, Mazzone M, Smyth MJ, Tüting T, Hölzel M. Reactive Neutrophil Responses Dependent on the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase c-MET Limit Cancer Immunotherapy. Immunity 2017; 47:789-802.e9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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11
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Hanson R, Evilia C, Gilmer J, Woods L, Black B, Flores R, Pfau JC. Libby amphibole-induced mesothelial cell autoantibodies bind to surface plasminogen and alter collagen matrix remodeling. Physiol Rep 2017; 4:4/15/e12881. [PMID: 27519611 PMCID: PMC4985547 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Lamellar pleural thickening (LPT) is a fibrotic disease induced by exposure to Libby amphibole (LA) asbestos that causes widespread scarring around the lung, resulting in deterioration of pulmonary function. Investigating the effects of autoantibodies to mesothelial cells (MCAA) present in the study populations has been a major part of the effort to understand the mechanism of pathogenesis. It has been shown in vitro that human mesothelial cells (Met5a) exposed to MCAA increase collagen deposition into the extracellular matrix (ECM). In this study, we sought to further elucidate how MCAA drive increased collagen deposition by identifying the protein targets bound by MCAA on the cellular surface using biotinylation to label and isolate surface proteins. Isolated surface protein fractions were identified as containing MCAA targets using ELISA. The fractions that demonstrated binding by MCAA were then analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and MASCOT analysis. The most promising result from the MASCOT analysis, plasminogen (PLG), was tested for MCAA binding using purified human PLG in an ELISA. We report that serum containing MCAA bound at an optical density (OD) 3 times greater than that of controls, and LA‐exposed subjects had a high frequency of positive tests for anti‐PLG autoantibodies. This work implicates the involvement of the plasminogen/plasmin system in the mechanism of excess collagen deposition in Met5a cells exposed to MCAA. Elucidating this mechanism could contribute to the understanding of LPT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Hanson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho
| | - Caryn Evilia
- Department of Chemistry, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho
| | - John Gilmer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho
| | - Linda Woods
- Department of Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho
| | - Brad Black
- Center for Asbestos Related Diseases, Libby, Montana
| | - Raja Flores
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt Sinai, New York City, New York
| | - Jean C Pfau
- Department of Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho Department of Thoracic Surgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt Sinai, New York City, New York
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12
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Schuliga M, Jaffar J, Harris T, Knight DA, Westall G, Stewart AG. The fibrogenic actions of lung fibroblast-derived urokinase: a potential drug target in IPF. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41770. [PMID: 28139758 PMCID: PMC5282574 DOI: 10.1038/srep41770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) remains unclear. uPA-generated plasmin has potent fibrogenic actions involving protease activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Here we characterize uPA distribution or levels in lung tissue and sera from IPF patients to establish the mechanism of its fibrogenic actions on lung fibroblasts (LFs). uPA immunoreactivity was detected in regions of fibrosis including fibroblasts of lung tissue from IPF patients (n = 7). Serum uPA levels and activity were also higher in IPF patients (n = 18) than controls (n = 18) (P < 0.05), being negatively correlated with lung function as measured by forced vital capacity (FVC) %predicted (P < 0.05). The culture supernatants of LFs from IPF patients, as compared to controls, showed an increase in plasmin activity after plasminogen incubation (5–15 μg/mL), corresponding with increased levels of uPA and IL-6 (n = 5–6, P < 0.05). Plasminogen-induced increases in plasmin activity and IL-6 levels were attenuated by reducing uPA and/or PAR-1 expression by RNAi. Plasmin(ogen)-induced mitogenesis was also attenuated by targeting uPA, PAR-1 or IL-6. Our data shows uPA is formed in active regions of fibrosis in IPF lung and contributes to LF plasmin generation, IL-6 production and proliferation. Urokinase is a potential target for the treatment of lung fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schuliga
- Lung Health Research Centre, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jade Jaffar
- Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Prahran, Victoria, Australia
| | - Trudi Harris
- Lung Health Research Centre, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Darryl A Knight
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Glen Westall
- Allergy, Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Prahran, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alastair G Stewart
- Lung Health Research Centre, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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13
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Silencing of Carbohydrate Sulfotransferase 15 Hinders Murine Pulmonary Fibrosis Development. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2016; 6:163-172. [PMID: 28325283 PMCID: PMC5363499 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive lung disorder characterized by interstitial fibrosis, for which no effective treatments are available. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG) has been shown to be a mediator, but the specific component of glycosaminoglycan chains of CSPG has not been explored. We show that chondroitin sulfate E-type (CS-E) is involved in fibrogenesis. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting carbohydrate sulfotransferase 15 (CHST15) was designed to inhibit CHST15 mRNA and its product, CS-E. CS-E augments cell contraction and CHST15 siRNA inhibits collagen production. We found that bleomycin treatment increased CHST15 expression in interstitial fibroblasts at day 14. CHST15 siRNA was injected intranasally on days 1, 4, 8, and 11, and CHST15 mRNA was significantly suppressed by day 14. CHST15 siRNA reduced lung CSPG and the grade of fibrosis. CHST15 siRNA repressed the activation of fibroblasts, as evidenced by suppressed expression of α smooth muscle actin (αSMA), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), lysyl oxidase like 2 (LOXL2), and CC-chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2)/monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Inflammatory infiltrates in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and interstitium were diminished by CHST15 siRNA. These results indicate a pivotal role for CHST15 in fibroblast-mediated lung fibrosis and suggest a possible new therapeutic role for CHST15 siRNA in pulmonary fibrosis.
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14
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Comparative Analysis of Toxic Responses of Organic Extracts from Diesel and Selected Alternative Fuels Engine Emissions in Human Lung BEAS-2B Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17111833. [PMID: 27827897 PMCID: PMC5133834 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study used toxicogenomics to identify the complex biological response of human lung BEAS-2B cells treated with organic components of particulate matter in the exhaust of a diesel engine. First, we characterized particles from standard diesel (B0), biodiesel (methylesters of rapeseed oil) in its neat form (B100) and 30% by volume blend with diesel fuel (B30), and neat hydrotreated vegetable oil (NEXBTL100). The concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives in organic extracts was the lowest for NEXBTL100 and higher for biodiesel. We further analyzed global gene expression changes in BEAS-2B cells following 4 h and 24 h treatment with extracts. The concentrations of 50 µg extract/mL induced a similar molecular response. The common processes induced after 4 h treatment included antioxidant defense, metabolism of xenobiotics and lipids, suppression of pro-apoptotic stimuli, or induction of plasminogen activating cascade; 24 h treatment affected fewer processes, particularly those involved in detoxification of xenobiotics, including PAHs. The majority of distinctively deregulated genes detected after both 4 h and 24 h treatment were induced by NEXBTL100; the deregulated genes included, e.g., those involved in antioxidant defense and cell cycle regulation and proliferation. B100 extract, with the highest PAH concentrations, additionally affected several cell cycle regulatory genes and p38 signaling.
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15
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Inhibition of lysosomal protease cathepsin D reduces renal fibrosis in murine chronic kidney disease. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20101. [PMID: 26831567 PMCID: PMC4735715 DOI: 10.1038/srep20101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
During chronic kidney disease (CKD) there is a dysregulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis leading to renal fibrosis. Lysosomal proteases such as cathepsins (Cts) regulate this process in other organs, however, their role in CKD is still unknown. Here we describe a novel role for cathepsins in CKD. CtsD and B were located in distal and proximal tubular cells respectively in human disease. Administration of CtsD (Pepstatin A) but not B inhibitor (Ca074-Me), in two mouse CKD models, UUO and chronic ischemia reperfusion injury, led to a reduction in fibrosis. No changes in collagen transcription or myofibroblasts numbers were observed. Pepstatin A administration resulted in increased extracellular urokinase and collagen degradation. In vitro and in vivo administration of chloroquine, an endo/lysosomal inhibitor, mimicked Pepstatin A effect on renal fibrosis. Therefore, we propose a mechanism by which CtsD inhibition leads to increased collagenolytic activity due to an impairment in lysosomal recycling. This results in increased extracellular activity of enzymes such as urokinase, triggering a proteolytic cascade, which culminates in more ECM degradation. Taken together these results suggest that inhibition of lysosomal proteases, such as CtsD, could be a new therapeutic approach to reduce renal fibrosis and slow progression of CKD.
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16
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Kanno Y, Shu E, Kanoh H, Seishima M. The Antifibrotic Effect of α2AP Neutralization in Systemic Sclerosis Dermal Fibroblasts and Mouse Models of Systemic Sclerosis. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 136:762-769. [PMID: 26743600 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2015.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue disease of autoimmune origin characterized by the fibrosis of skin and visceral organs, and peripheral circulatory disturbance. We recently demonstrated that α2-antiplasmin (α2AP), which is the physiological inhibitor of plasmin, is associated with the development of fibrosis. The aim of this study was to clarify the role of α2AP in the pathogenesis of SSc. The administration of α2AP in mice induced profibrotic changes, such as increased dermal thickness, collagen production, and myofibroblast differentiation. Conversely, the α2AP neutralization prevented not only profibrotic changes, but also the production of autoantibodies in bleomycin-induced mouse models of SSc. The expression of α2AP was elevated in dermal fibroblasts obtained from patients with SSc. Furthermore, α2AP treatment promoted profibrotic changes in human normal dermal fibroblasts, and α2AP neutralization reversed a profibrotic phenotype of SSc dermal fibroblasts, in the absence of plasmin. Our findings demonstrated that α2AP has a profibrotic effect probably not by the action as a plasmin inhibitor, and that the blocking of α2AP exerts an antifibrotic effect in humans and mice with SSc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Kanno
- Department of Clinical Pathological Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Doshisha Women's Collage of Liberal Arts, Kodo Kyo-tanabe, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - En Shu
- Department of Dermatology, Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine, Yanagido Gifu, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kanoh
- Department of Dermatology, Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine, Yanagido Gifu, Japan
| | - Mariko Seishima
- Department of Dermatology, Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine, Yanagido Gifu, Japan
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17
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Ban C, Wang T, Zhang S, Xin P, Liang L, Wang C, Dai H. Fibrinolytic system related to pulmonary arterial pressure and lung function of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. CLINICAL RESPIRATORY JOURNAL 2015; 11:640-647. [PMID: 26425916 DOI: 10.1111/crj.12397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Revised: 01/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES AND AIMS To investigate urokinase-(uPA) and tissue-type (tPA) plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1) levels in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and to determine the relationship between fibrinolytic system and pulmonary arterial pressure and pulmonary function. METHODS Seventy-nine patients with IPF were included. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and blood samples were collected. The concentrations of tPA, uPA and PAI-1 were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Doppler echocardiography was used to detect tricuspid regurgitation pressure gradient (TRPG) to estimate pulmonary arterial pressure. RESULTS BALF tPA elevated (P < 0.005), circulatory PAI-1 decreased (P = 0.05) and the ratio of uPA and PAI-1 decreased (P = 0.01) in BALF in IPF patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH) compared to those without PH. Positive linear correlations were found: BALF tPA and TRPG (r = 0.558, P = 0.013); the predicted percentage of diffusion capacity of lung for carbon monoxide adjustments for alveolar volume and BALF uPA (r = 0.319, P = 0.035). Negative linear correlations were as follows: BALF PAI-1 and the predicted percentage of VCmax (r = -0.325, P = 0.020), or total lung capacity (r = -0.312, P = 0.033); circulatory PAI-1 and TRPG (r = -0.697, P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS The change of alveolar fibrolytic system in IPF, especially the uPA reduction and the PAI-1elevation, contributes to the deterioration of lung function. During the lung injury initiating fibrosis, tPA and PAI-1 might be leaked out of the pulmonary capillaries into alveoli, resulting in their elevation in alveoli and reduction in circulation, and finally contributing to the development of PH in IPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengjun Ban
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.,Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Tongde Wang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.,Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Shu Zhang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.,Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Ping Xin
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.,Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Lirong Liang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.,Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Huaping Dai
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100020, China.,Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Key Laboratory of Respiratory and Pulmonary Circulation, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing, 100020, China
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18
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Batra H, Antony VB. Pleural mesothelial cells in pleural and lung diseases. J Thorac Dis 2015; 7:964-80. [PMID: 26150910 DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.02.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
During development, the mesoderm maintains a complex relationship with the developing endoderm giving rise to the mature lung. Pleural mesothelial cells (PMCs) derived from the mesoderm play a key role during the development of the lung. The pleural mesothelium differentiates to give rise to the endothelium and smooth muscle cells via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). An aberrant recapitulation of such developmental pathways can play an important role in the pathogenesis of disease processes such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The PMC is the central component of the immune responses of the pleura. When exposed to noxious stimuli, it demonstrates innate immune responses such as Toll-like receptor (TLR) recognition of pathogen associated molecular patterns as well as causes the release of several cytokines to activate adaptive immune responses. Development of pleural effusions occurs due to an imbalance in the dynamic interaction between junctional proteins, n-cadherin and β-catenin, and phosphorylation of adherens junctions between PMCs, which is caused in part by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) released by PMCs. PMCs play an important role in defense mechanisms against bacterial and mycobacterial pleural infections, and in pathogenesis of malignant pleural effusion, asbestos related pleural disease and malignant pleural mesothelioma. PMCs also play a key role in the resolution of inflammation, which can occur with or without fibrosis. Fibrosis occurs as a result of disordered fibrin turnover and due to the effects of cytokines such as transforming growth factor-β, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and basic fibroblast growth factor; which are released by PMCs. Recent studies have demonstrated a role for PMCs in the pathogenesis of IPF suggesting their potential as a cellular biomarker of disease activity and as a possible therapeutic target. Pleural-based therapies targeting PMCs for treatment of IPF and other lung diseases need further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitesh Batra
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Veena B Antony
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL, USA
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19
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Pattanaik D, Brown M, Postlethwaite BC, Postlethwaite AE. Pathogenesis of Systemic Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2015; 6:272. [PMID: 26106387 PMCID: PMC4459100 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic scleroderma (SSc) is one of the most complex systemic autoimmune diseases. It targets the vasculature, connective tissue-producing cells (namely fibroblasts/myofibroblasts), and components of the innate and adaptive immune systems. Clinical and pathologic manifestations of SSc are the result of: (1) innate/adaptive immune system abnormalities leading to production of autoantibodies and cell-mediated autoimmunity, (2) microvascular endothelial cell/small vessel fibroproliferative vasculopathy, and (3) fibroblast dysfunction generating excessive accumulation of collagen and other matrix components in skin and internal organs. All three of these processes interact and affect each other. The disease is heterogeneous in its clinical presentation that likely reflects different genetic or triggering factor (i.e., infection or environmental toxin) influences on the immune system, vasculature, and connective tissue cells. The roles played by other ubiquitous molecular entities (such as lysophospholipids, endocannabinoids, and their diverse receptors and vitamin D) in influencing the immune system, vasculature, and connective tissue cells are just beginning to be realized and studied and may provide insights into new therapeutic approaches to treat SSc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debendra Pattanaik
- Department of Medicine, Division of Connective Tissue Diseases, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, TN , USA ; Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Memphis, TN , USA
| | - Monica Brown
- Section of Pediatric Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, TN , USA
| | - Bradley C Postlethwaite
- Department of Medicine, Division of Connective Tissue Diseases, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, TN , USA
| | - Arnold E Postlethwaite
- Department of Medicine, Division of Connective Tissue Diseases, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, TN , USA ; Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Memphis, TN , USA
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20
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Liu F, Lagares D, Choi KM, Stopfer L, Marinković A, Vrbanac V, Probst CK, Hiemer SE, Sisson TH, Horowitz JC, Rosas IO, Fredenburgh LE, Feghali-Bostwick C, Varelas X, Tager AM, Tschumperlin DJ. Mechanosignaling through YAP and TAZ drives fibroblast activation and fibrosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2014; 308:L344-57. [PMID: 25502501 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00300.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 533] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathological fibrosis is driven by a feedback loop in which the fibrotic extracellular matrix is both a cause and consequence of fibroblast activation. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this process remain poorly understood. Here we identify yes-associated protein (YAP) (homolog of drosophila Yki) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) (also known as Wwtr1), transcriptional effectors of the Hippo pathway, as key matrix stiffness-regulated coordinators of fibroblast activation and matrix synthesis. YAP and TAZ are prominently expressed in fibrotic but not healthy lung tissue, with particularly pronounced nuclear expression of TAZ in spindle-shaped fibroblastic cells. In culture, both YAP and TAZ accumulate in the nuclei of fibroblasts grown on pathologically stiff matrices but not physiologically compliant matrices. Knockdown of YAP and TAZ together in vitro attenuates key fibroblast functions, including matrix synthesis, contraction, and proliferation, and does so exclusively on pathologically stiff matrices. Profibrotic effects of YAP and TAZ operate, in part, through their transcriptional target plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, which is regulated by matrix stiffness independent of transforming growth factor-β signaling. Immortalized fibroblasts conditionally expressing active YAP or TAZ mutant proteins overcome soft matrix limitations on growth and promote fibrosis when adoptively transferred to the murine lung, demonstrating the ability of fibroblast YAP/TAZ activation to drive a profibrotic response in vivo. Together, these results identify YAP and TAZ as mechanoactivated coordinators of the matrix-driven feedback loop that amplifies and sustains fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Liu
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - David Lagares
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Unit and Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts
| | - Kyoung Moo Choi
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Lauren Stopfer
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Aleksandar Marinković
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Vladimir Vrbanac
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Unit and Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts
| | - Clemens K Probst
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Unit and Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts
| | - Samantha E Hiemer
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Thomas H Sisson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Jeffrey C Horowitz
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Ivan O Rosas
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Laura E Fredenburgh
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Carol Feghali-Bostwick
- Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Xaralabos Varelas
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Andrew M Tager
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Unit and Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts
| | - Daniel J Tschumperlin
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota;
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21
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McKleroy W, Lee TH, Atabai K. Always cleave up your mess: targeting collagen degradation to treat tissue fibrosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2013; 304:L709-21. [PMID: 23564511 PMCID: PMC3680761 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00418.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary fibrosis is a vexing clinical problem with no proven therapeutic options. In the normal lung there is continuous collagen synthesis and collagen degradation, and these two processes are precisely balanced to maintain normal tissue architecture. With lung injury there is an increase in the rate of both collagen production and collagen degradation. The increase in collagen degradation is critical in preventing the formation of permanent scar tissue each time the lung is exposed to injury. In pulmonary fibrosis, collagen degradation does not keep pace with collagen production, resulting in extracellular accumulation of fibrillar collagen. Collagen degradation occurs through both extracellular and intracellular pathways. The extracellular pathway involves cleavage of collagen fibrils by proteolytic enzyme including the metalloproteinases. The less-well-described intracellular pathway involves binding and uptake of collagen fragments by fibroblasts and macrophages for lysosomal degradation. The relationship between these two pathways and their relevance to the development of fibrosis is complex. Fibrosis in the lung, liver, and skin has been associated with an impaired degradative environment. Much of the current scientific effort in fibrosis is focused on understanding the pathways that regulate increased collagen production. However, recent reports suggest an important role for collagen turnover and degradation in regulating the severity of tissue fibrosis. The objective of this review is to evaluate the roles of the extracellular and intracellular collagen degradation pathways in the development of fibrosis and to examine whether pulmonary fibrosis can be viewed as a disease of impaired matrix degradation rather than a disease of increased matrix production.
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Affiliation(s)
- William McKleroy
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Lung Biology Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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22
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Willems S, Stijn W, Verleden SE, Vanaudenaerde BM, Wynants M, Marijke W, Dooms C, Christophe D, Yserbyt J, Jonas Y, Somers J, Jana S, Verbeken EK, Verleden GM, Wuyts WA. Multiplex protein profiling of bronchoalveolar lavage in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Ann Thorac Med 2013; 8:38-45. [PMID: 23440593 PMCID: PMC3573557 DOI: 10.4103/1817-1737.105718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) are diffuse parenchymal lung diseases characterized by a mixture of inflammation and fibrosis, leading to lung destruction and finally death. AIMS: The aim of this study was to compare different pathophysiological mechanisms, such as angiogenesis, coagulation, fibrosis, tissue repair, inflammation, epithelial damage, oxidative stress, and matrix remodeling, in both disorders using bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). METHODS: At diagnosis, patients underwent bronchoscopy with BAL and were divided into three groups: Control (n = 10), HP (n = 11), and IPF (n = 11), based on multidisciplinary approach (clinical examination, radiology, and histology): Multiplex searchlight technology was used to analyze 25 proteins representative for different pathophysiological processes: Eotaxin, basic fibroblast growth factor (FGFb), fibronectin, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), interleukine (IL)-8, IL-12p40, IL-17, IL-23, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP-1), macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), myeloperoxidase (MPO), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-8, MMP-9, active plasminogen activating inhibitor 1 (PAI-1), pulmonary activation regulated chemokine (PARC), placental growth factor (PlGF), protein-C, receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), regulated on activation normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES), surfactant protein-C (SP-C), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), tissue factor, thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). RESULTS: All patients suffered from decreased pulmonary function and abnormal BAL cell differential compared with control. Protein levels were increased in both IPF and HP for MMP-8 (P = 0.022), MMP-9 (P = 0.0020), MCP-1 (P = 0.0006), MDC (P = 0.0048), IL-8 (P = 0.013), MPO (P = 0.019), and protein-C (P = 0.0087), whereas VEGF was decreased (P = 0.0003) compared with control. HGF was upregulated in HP (P = 0.0089) and active PAI-1 was upregulated (P = 0.019) in IPF compared with control. Differences in expression between IPF and HP were observed for IL-12p40 (P = 0.0093) and TGF-β1 (P = 0.0045). CONCLUSIONS: Using BAL, we demonstrated not only expected similarities but also important differences in both disorders, many related to the innate immunity. These findings provide new clues for further research in both disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Willems
- Department of Pathophysiology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and University Hospital Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium
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23
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Kanno Y, Kawashita E, Kokado A, Okada K, Ueshima S, Matsuo O, Matsuno H. Alpha2-antiplasmin regulates the development of dermal fibrosis in mice by prostaglandin F2αsynthesis through adipose triglyceride lipase/calcium-independent phospholipase A2. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 65:492-502. [DOI: 10.1002/art.37767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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24
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Hu W, Yen YT, Singh S, Kao CL, Wu-Hsieh BA. SARS-CoV regulates immune function-related gene expression in human monocytic cells. Viral Immunol 2012; 25:277-88. [PMID: 22876772 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2011.0099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is characterized by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary fibrosis, and monocytes/macrophages are the key players in the pathogenesis of SARS. In this study, we compared the transcriptional profiles of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-infected monocytic cells against that infected by coronavirus 229E (CoV-229E). Total RNA was extracted from infected DC-SIGN-transfected monocytes (THP-1-DC-SIGN) at 6 and 24 h after infection, and the gene expression was profiled in oligonucleotide-based microarrays. Analysis of immune-related gene expression profiles showed that at 24 h after SARS-CoV infection: (1) IFN-α/β-inducible and cathepsin/proteasome genes were downregulated; (2) hypoxia/hyperoxia-related genes were upregulated; and (3) TLR/TLR-signaling, cytokine/cytokine receptor-related, chemokine/chemokine receptor-related, lysosome-related, MHC/chaperon-related, and fibrosis-related genes were differentially regulated. These results elucidate that SARS-CoV infection regulates immune-related genes in monocytes/macrophages, which may be important to the pathogenesis of SARS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanchung Hu
- Graduate Institute of Immunology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
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Abstract
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is currently believed to be driven by alveolar epithelial cells, with abnormally activated alveolar epithelial cells accumulating in an attempt to repair injured alveolar epithelium (1). Thus, targeting the alveolar epithelium to prevent or inhibit the development of pulmonary fibrosis might be an interesting therapeutic option in this disease. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a growth factor for epithelial and endothelial cells, which is secreted by different cell types, especially fibroblasts and neutrophils. HGF has mitogenic, motogenic, and morphogenic properties and exerts an antiapoptotic action on epithelial and endothelial cells. HGF has also proangiogenic effect. In vitro, HGF inhibits epithelial-to-mesenchymal cell transition and promotes myofibroblast apoptosis. In vivo, HGF has antifibrotic properties demonstrated in experimental models of lung, kidney, heart, skin, and liver fibrosis. Hence, the modulation of HGF may be an attractive target for the treatment of lung fibrosis.
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Cell surface remodeling by plasmin: a new function for an old enzyme. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012:564259. [PMID: 23097597 PMCID: PMC3477900 DOI: 10.1155/2012/564259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmin, one of the most potent and reactive serine proteases, is involved in various physiological processes, including embryo development, thrombolysis, wound healing and cancer progression. The proteolytic activity of plasmin is tightly regulated through activation of its precursor, plasminogen, only at specific times and in defined locales as well as through inhibition of active plasmin by its abundant natural inhibitors. By exploiting the plasminogen activating system and overexpressing distinct components of the plasminogen activation cascade, such as pro-uPA, uPAR and plasminogen receptors, malignant cells can enhance the generation of plasmin which in turn, modifies the tumor microenvironment to sustain cancer progression. While plasmin-mediated degradation and modification of extracellular matrix proteins, release of growth factors and cytokines from the stroma as well as activation of several matrix metalloproteinase zymogens, all have been a focus of cancer research studies for decades, the ability of plasmin to cleave transmembrane molecules and thereby to generate functionally important cleaved products which induce outside-in signal transduction, has just begun to receive sufficient attention. Herein, we highlight this relatively understudied, but important function of the plasmin enzyme as it is generated de novo at the interface between cross-talking cancer and host cells.
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siRNA against plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 ameliorates bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in rats. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2012; 33:897-908. [PMID: 22659625 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2012.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) is involved in the progression of pulmonary fibrosis. The present study was undertaken to examine the effects on pulmonary fibrosis of silencing PAI-1 expression with small interfering RNA (siRNA) and to assess the possible underlying mechanisms. METHODS Male Wistar rats were subjected to intratracheal injection of bleomycin (BLM, 5 mg/kg, 0.2 mL) to induce pulmonary fibrosis. Histopathological changes of lung tissue were examined with HE or Masson's trichrome staining. The expression levels of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), collagen type-I and type-III, caspase-3, as well as p-ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt in the lung tissue were evaluated using imunohistochemistry and Western blot analyses. The fibroblasts isolated from BLM-induced fibrotic lung tissue were cultured and transfected with pcDNA-PAI-1 or PAI-1siRNA. The expression level of PAI-1 in the fibroblasts was measured using real time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. The fibroblast proliferation was evaluated using MTT assay. RESULTS Intratracheal injection of PAI-1-siRNA (7.5 nmoL/0.2 mL) significantly alleviated alveolitis and collagen deposition, reduced the expression of PAI-1, α-SMA, collagen type-I and collagen type-III, and increased the expression of caspase-3 in BLM-induced fibrotic lung tissue. In consistence with the in vivo results, the proliferation of the cultured fibroblasts from BLM-induced fibrotic lung tissue was inhibited by transfection with PAI-1-siRNA, and accelerated by overexpression of PAI-1 by transfection with pcDNA-PAI-1. The expression of caspase-3 was increased as a result of PAI-1 siRNA transfection, and decreased after transfection with pcDNA-PAI-1. In addition, the levels of p-ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt in the fibrogenic lung tissue were reduced after treatment with PAI-1siRNA. CONCLUSION The data demonstrate that PAI-1 siRNA inhibits alveolitis and pulmonary fibrosis in BLM-treated rats via inhibiting the proliferation and promoting the apoptosis of fibroblasts. Suppression ERK and AKT signalling pathways might have at least partly contributed to this process. Targeting PAI-1 is a promising therapeutic strategy for pulmonary fibrosis.
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Abstract
Fibrosis is defined as a fibroproliferative or abnormal fibroblast activation-related disease. Deregulation of wound healing leads to hyperactivation of fibroblasts and excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins in the wound area, the pathological manifestation of fibrosis. The accumulation of excessive levels of collagen in the ECM depends on two factors: an increased rate of collagen synthesis and or decreased rate of collagen degradation by cellular proteolytic activities. The urokinase/tissue type plasminogen activator (uPA/tPA) and plasmin play significant roles in the cellular proteolytic degradation of ECM proteins and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. The activities of uPA/tPA/plasmin and plasmin-dependent MMPs rely mostly on the activity of a potent inhibitor of uPA/tPA, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). Under normal physiologic conditions, PAI-1 controls the activities of uPA/tPA/plasmin/MMP proteolytic activities and thus maintains the tissue homeostasis. During wound healing, elevated levels of PAI-1 inhibit uPA/tPA/plasmin and plasmin-dependent MMP activities, and, thus, help expedite wound healing. In contrast to this scenario, under pathologic conditions, excessive PAI-1 contributes to excessive accumulation of collagen and other ECM protein in the wound area, and thus preserves scarring. While the level of PAI-1 is significantly elevated in fibrotic tissues, lack of PAI-1 protects different organs from fibrosis in response to injury-related profibrotic signals. Thus, PAI-1 is implicated in the pathology of fibrosis in different organs including the heart, lung, kidney, liver, and skin. Paradoxically, PAI-1 deficiency promotes spontaneous cardiac-selective fibrosis. In this review, we discuss the significance of PAI-1 in the pathogenesis of fibrosis in multiple organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asish K Ghosh
- Feinberg Cardiovascular Research Institute, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA.
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Alejandre Alcazar MA, Ostreicher I, Appel S, Rother E, Vohlen C, Plank C, Dötsch J. Developmental regulation of inflammatory cytokine-mediated Stat3 signaling: the missing link between intrauterine growth restriction and pulmonary dysfunction? J Mol Med (Berl) 2012; 90:945-57. [PMID: 22271168 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-012-0860-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Revised: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 12/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a risk factor for impairment of lung function in adolescence and adulthood. Inflammatory and proliferative processes linking IUGR and perturbed extracellular matrix (ECM) as an underlying mechanism have not been addressed so far. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate the developmental regulation of inflammatory and profibrotic processes in the lung subsequent to IUGR. IUGR was induced in rats by isocaloric protein restriction during gestation. Lung function was assessed with direct plethysmography at postnatal day (P) 28 and P70. Lungs were obtained at P1, P42, and P70 for assessment of mRNA, protein expression, immunohistochemistry, and gelatinolytic activity. Both respiratory system resistance and compliance were impaired subsequent to IUGR at P28 and this impairment was even more pronounced at P70. In line with these results, the expression of ECM components and metabolizing enzymes was deregulated. The deposition of collagen was increased at P70. In addition, the expression of inflammatory cytokines and both the activity and the expression of target genes of Stat3 signaling were dynamically regulated, with unaltered or decreased expression at P1 and significantly increased expression art P70. Taken together, these data give evidence for an age-dependent impairment of lung function as a result of a developmentally regulated increase in inflammatory and profibrotic processes subsequent to IUGR.
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López-Guisa JM, Cai X, Collins SJ, Yamaguchi I, Okamura DM, Bugge TH, Isacke CM, Emson CL, Turner SM, Shankland SJ, Eddy AA. Mannose receptor 2 attenuates renal fibrosis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2011; 23:236-51. [PMID: 22095946 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2011030310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mannose receptor 2 (Mrc2) expresses an extracellular fibronectin type II domain that binds to and internalizes collagen, suggesting that it may play a role in modulating renal fibrosis. Here, we found that Mrc2 levels were very low in normal kidneys but subsets of interstitial myofibroblasts and macrophages upregulated Mrc2 after unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Renal fibrosis and renal parenchymal damage were significantly worse in Mrc2-deficient mice. Similarly, Mrc2-deficient Col4α3(-/-) mice with hereditary nephritis had significantly higher levels of total kidney collagen, serum BUN, and urinary protein than Mrc2-sufficient Col4α3(-/-) mice. The more severe phenotype seemed to be the result of reduced collagen turnover, because procollagen III (α1) mRNA levels and fractional collagen synthesis in the wild-type and Mrc2-deficient kidneys were similar after UUO. Although Mrc2 associates with the urokinase receptor, differences in renal urokinase activity did not account for the increased fibrosis in the Mrc2-deficient mice. Treating wild-type mice with a cathepsin inhibitor, which blocks proteases implicated in Mrc2-mediated collagen degradation, worsened UUO-induced renal fibrosis. Cathepsin mRNA profiles were similar in Mrc2-positive fibroblasts and macrophages, and Mrc2 genotype did not alter relative cathepsin mRNA levels. Taken together, these data establish an important fibrosis-attenuating role for Mrc2-expressing renal interstitial cells and suggest the involvement of a lysosomal collagen turnover pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús M López-Guisa
- Seattle Children's Research Institute and Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98101-1309, USA
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Miyamoto S, Hattori N, Senoo T, Onari Y, Iwamoto H, Kanehara M, Ishikawa N, Fujitaka K, Haruta Y, Murai H, Yokoyama A, Kohno N. Intra-airway administration of small interfering RNA targeting plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 attenuates allergic asthma in mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2011; 301:L908-16. [PMID: 21926267 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00115.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies suggest that plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), a major inhibitor of the fibrinolytic system, may promote the development of asthma. To further investigate the significance of PAI-1 in the pathogenesis of asthma and determine the possibility that PAI-1 could be a therapeutic target for asthma, this study was conducted. First, PAI-1 levels in induced sputum (IS) from asthmatic subjects and healthy controls were measured. In asthmatic subjects, IS PAI-1 levels were elevated, compared with that of healthy controls, and were significantly higher in patients with long-duration asthma compared with short-duration asthma. PAI-1 levels were also found to correlate with IS transforming growth factor-β levels. Then, acute and chronic asthma models induced by ovalbumin were established in PAI-1-deficient mice and wild-type mice that received intra-airway administrations of small interfering RNA against PAI-1 (PAI-1-siRNA). We could demonstrate that eosinophilic airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness were reduced in an acute asthma model, and airway remodeling was suppressed in a chronic asthma model in both PAI-1-deficient mice and wild-type mice that received intra-airway administration of PAI-1-siRNA. These results indicate that PAI-1 is strongly involved in the pathogenesis of asthma, and intra-airway administration of PAI-1-siRNA may be able to become a new therapeutic approach for asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shintaro Miyamoto
- Department of Molecular and Internal Medicine, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Japan
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Okunishi K, Sisson TH, Huang SK, Hogaboam CM, Simon RH, Peters-Golden M. Plasmin overcomes resistance to prostaglandin E2 in fibrotic lung fibroblasts by reorganizing protein kinase A signaling. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:32231-43. [PMID: 21795691 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.235606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Collagen deposition by fibroblasts contributes to scarring in fibrotic diseases. Activation of protein kinase A (PKA) by cAMP represents a pivotal brake on fibroblast activation, and the lipid mediator prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) exerts its well known anti-fibrotic actions through cAMP signaling. However, fibrotic fibroblasts from the lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or of mice with bleomycin-induced fibrosis, are resistant to the normal collagen-inhibiting action of PGE(2). In this study, we demonstrate that plasminogen activation to plasmin restores PGE(2) sensitivity in fibrotic lung fibroblasts from human and mouse. This involves amplified PKA signaling resulting from the promotion of new interactions between AKAP9 and PKA regulatory subunit II in the perinuclear region as well as from the inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A. This is the first report to show that an extracellular mediator can dramatically reorganize and amplify the intracellular PKA-A-kinase anchoring protein signaling network and suggests a new strategy to control collagen deposition by fibrotic fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuhide Okunishi
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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Abstract
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) is increased in the lungs of patients with pulmonary fibrosis, and animal studies have shown that experimental manipulations of PAI-1 levels directly influence the extent of scarring that follows lung injury. PAI-1 has 2 known properties that could potentiate fibrosis, namely an antiprotease activity that inhibits the generation of plasmin, and a vitronectin-binding function that interferes with cell adhesion to this extracellular matrix protein. To determine the relative importance of each PAI-1 function in lung fibrogenesis, we administered mutant PAI-1 proteins that possessed either intact antiprotease or vitronectin-binding activity to bleomycin-injured mice genetically deficient in PAI-1. We found that the vitronectin-binding capacity of PAI-1 was the primary determinant required for its ability to exacerbate lung scarring induced by intratracheal bleomycin administration. The critical role of the vitronectin-binding function of PAI-1 in fibrosis was confirmed in the bleomycin model using mice genetically modified to express the mutant PAI-1 proteins. We conclude that the vitronectin-binding function of PAI-1 is necessary and sufficient in its ability to exacerbate fibrotic processes in the lung.
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Bauman KA, Wettlaufer SH, Okunishi K, Vannella KM, Stoolman JS, Huang SK, Courey AJ, White ES, Hogaboam CM, Simon RH, Toews GB, Sisson TH, Moore BB, Peters-Golden M. The antifibrotic effects of plasminogen activation occur via prostaglandin E2 synthesis in humans and mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:1950-60. [PMID: 20501949 DOI: 10.1172/jci38369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasminogen activation to plasmin protects from lung fibrosis, but the mechanism underlying this antifibrotic effect remains unclear. We found that mice lacking plasminogen activation inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), which are protected from bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis, exhibit lung overproduction of the antifibrotic lipid mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Plasminogen activation upregulated PGE2 synthesis in alveolar epithelial cells, lung fibroblasts, and lung fibrocytes from saline- and bleomycin-treated mice, as well as in normal fetal and adult primary human lung fibroblasts. This response was exaggerated in cells from Pai1-/- mice. Although enhanced PGE2 formation required the generation of plasmin, it was independent of proteinase-activated receptor 1 (PAR-1) and instead reflected proteolytic activation and release of HGF with subsequent induction of COX-2. That the HGF/COX-2/PGE2 axis mediates in vivo protection from fibrosis in Pai1-/- mice was demonstrated by experiments showing that a selective inhibitor of the HGF receptor c-Met increased lung collagen to WT levels while reducing COX-2 protein and PGE2 levels. Of clinical interest, fibroblasts from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis were found to be defective in their ability to induce COX-2 and, therefore, unable to upregulate PGE2 synthesis in response to plasmin or HGF. These studies demonstrate crosstalk between plasminogen activation and PGE2 generation in the lung and provide a mechanism for the well-known antifibrotic actions of the fibrinolytic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy A Bauman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and hepatocyte growth factor in the cerebrospinal fluid of infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Early Hum Dev 2010; 86:251-4. [PMID: 20457496 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2010.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In approximately 60% of infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus (PHH), ventricular dilation resolves by unknown intrinsic mechanisms, without the need for a shunt operation. A pathological hallmark of PHH is extensive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins in the subarachnoid space. Our previous study revealed that matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, which degrades ECM proteins, may play an important role in the resolution of ventricular dilation. MMP-9 is known to be induced by hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) in various cell lines. AIMS The aim of this study is to confirm our earlier finding that MMP-9 contributes to the resolution of PHH, and to investigate whether HGF also contributes to this process. STUDY DESIGN Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from 13 infants who developed ventricular dilation after intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH). Of these infants, 9 exhibited resolution of ventricular dilation without shunt operation; however, 4 infants had to be treated with shunt operation. The CSF levels of MMP-9 and HGF were measured using an enzyme immunoassay. RESULTS Significantly higher CSF levels of MMP-9 and HGF were detected in patients in whom the ventricular dilation resolved without shunt operation than in those with progressive ventricular dilation (MMP-9: median, 128ng/ml; range, 47-900ng/ml vs median, 50ng/ml; range, 12-110ng/ml; p<0.05; HGF: median, 2.42ng/ml; range, 0.81-7.04ng/ml vs median, 1.42ng/ml; range, 0.67-3.87ng/ml; p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that MMP-9 and HGF may participate in the resolution of ventricular dilation following IVH.
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Urokinase-type plasminogen activator increases hepatocyte growth factor activity required for skeletal muscle regeneration. Blood 2009; 114:5052-61. [PMID: 19812386 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-12-196212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The plasminogen system plays a crucial role in the repair of a variety of tissues, including skeletal muscle. We hypothesized that urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) promotes muscle regeneration by activating hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which, in turn, stimulates proliferation of myoblasts required for regeneration. In our studies, levels of active HGF and phosphorylation of the HGF receptor c-met were increased after muscle injury in wild-type mice. Compared with wild-type animals, mice deficient in uPA (uPA(-/-)) had markedly reduced HGF levels and c-met activation after muscle damage. This reduced HGF activity in uPA(-/-) animals was associated with decreased cell proliferation, myoblast accumulation, and new muscle fiber formation. On the other hand, HGF activity was enhanced at early time points in PAI-1(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice and the PAI-1(-/-) animals exhibited accelerated muscle fiber regeneration. Furthermore, administration of exogenous uPA rescued HGF levels and muscle regeneration in uPA(-/-) mice, and an HGF-blocking antibody reduced HGF activity and muscle regeneration in wild-type mice. We also found that uPA promotes myoblast proliferation in vitro through its proteolytic activity, and this process was inhibited by an HGF-blocking antibody. Together, our findings demonstrate that uPA promotes muscle regeneration through HGF activation and subsequent myoblast proliferation.
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Hu PF, Chen H, Zhong W, Lin Y, Zhang X, Chen YX, Xie WF. Adenovirus-mediated transfer of siRNA against PAI-1 mRNA ameliorates hepatic fibrosis in rats. J Hepatol 2009; 51:102-13. [PMID: 19446913 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2009.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2008] [Revised: 01/19/2009] [Accepted: 02/03/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) is a potential profibrotic molecule. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic effect of PAI-1 small interfering RNA (siRNA) on experimental hepatic fibrosis and investigate the intrinsic mechanisms. METHODS Hepatic fibrosis in rats was induced by dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) administration or bile duct ligation (BDL). An adenovirus carrying PAI-1 shRNA (AdshPAI) was generated and administered via tail vein injection. The expression of PAI-1 was confirmed by real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. The effect of AdshPAI on fibrosis was evaluated by histological and immunohistochemical examination. RESULTS We found that PAI-1 was downregulated after AdshPAI administration. Liver fibrosis was significantly improved after AdshPAI administration in both DMN and BDL models. AdshPAI treatment facilitated matrix degradation by correcting the levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and its inhibitors (TIMPs) through upregulation of MMP9, MMP13 and downregulation of TIMP-1. Moreover, AdshPAI treatment stimulated hepatocellular proliferation and inhibited cellular apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that AdshPAI treatment has a protective effect on hepatocytes and ameliorates liver fibrogenesis. Inhibiting the upregulation of PAI-1 during liver fibrosis may be an antifibrotic pathway worth exploiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Fang Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, China
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Phin S, Marchand-Adam S, Fabre A, Marchal-Somme J, Bantsimba-Malanda C, Kataoka H, Soler P, Crestani B. Imbalance in the pro-hepatocyte growth factor activation system in bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2009; 42:286-93. [PMID: 19448157 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2008-0305oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a growth factor for alveolar epithelial cells. Activation of pro-HGF to HGF is regulated by the HGF activator (HGFA), a serine protease, and a specific inhibitor (HGFA inhibitor-1, HAI-1). An imbalance in the HGFA/HAI-1 system might contribute to lung fibrosis. Pro-HGF activation capacity from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid was evaluated 3, 7, and 14 days after the intratracheal bleomycin injection (Bleo) in mice with or without thrombin. BAL fluid from naïve mice was used as control. HGFA and HAI-1 mRNA were evaluated by QPCR in the whole lung or by Western blot in BAL fluid. BAL fluid from control mice and Bleo mice activated pro-HGF in vitro at a similar degree. Thrombin accelerated proHGF activation by Bleo BAL on Day 3 and Day 7, but not on Day 14, or in control BAL. Incubation of pro-HGF with BAL from Bleo Day 3 and Day 7 mice increased phosphorylation of HGFR on A549 cells. Thrombin-induced pro-HGF activation was inhibited by an anti-HGFA antibody and accelerated by an anti-HAI-1 antibody. Active HGFA was not detected in control BAL and was strongly induced in Bleo BAL. HGFA concentrations were higher on Day 3 and Day 7 than on Day 14. HAI-1 was detected at low levels in control BAL and increased strongly by Day 3 with stable concentrations until Day 14. By demonstrating an imbalance between HGFA and HAI-1 expression in BAL fluid, our results highlight a defective thrombin-dependent proHGF activation system at the fibrotic phase of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Phin
- Inserm Unit 700, Faculté Xavier-Bichat, Paris, France
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Shanmukhappa K, Matte U, Degen JL, Bezerra JA. Plasmin-mediated proteolysis is required for hepatocyte growth factor activation during liver repair. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:12917-23. [PMID: 19286661 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m807313200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The physiological relevance of the activation of hepatocyte growth factor (Hgf) by the plasminogen (Plg) system of proteases and its contribution to tissue repair are largely undefined. Here, we investigated whether the defective liver repair in mice lacking Plg is due to impaired activation of Hgf. Loss of Plg in vivo suppressed Hgf activation and signaling through its Met tyrosine kinase receptor. Without Plg, hepatocytes were unresponsive to Hgf-induced proliferation and migration, with a more pronounced impairment in hepatocyte movement within the hepatic environment. Most notably, circumventing the defect in proteolytic activation of Hgf by the downstream expression of an activated Met receptor corrected the functional deficits and improved liver repair in Plg-deficient mice. These findings support a fibrinolysis-unrelated role for Plg in modulating cell proliferation and migration by activation of Hgf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumar Shanmukhappa
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA
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Hepatocyte growth factor prevents multiple organ injuries in endotoxemic mice through a heme oxygenase-1-dependent mechanism. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 380:333-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.01.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2009] [Accepted: 01/13/2009] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Kuramoto E, Nishiuma T, Kobayashi K, Yamamoto M, Kono Y, Funada Y, Kotani Y, Sisson TH, Simon RH, Nishimura Y. Inhalation of urokinase-type plasminogen activator reduces airway remodeling in a murine asthma model. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2008; 296:L337-46. [PMID: 19098125 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.90434.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The airway remodeling that occurs in asthma is characterized by an excess of extracellular matrix deposition in the submucosa, hyperplasia/hypertrophy of smooth muscle, goblet cell metaplasia, and accumulation of fibroblasts/myofibroblasts. The urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA)/plasmin system participates in pericellular proteolysis and is capable of directly degrading matrix components, activating latent proteinases, and activating growth factors. In a mouse ovalbumin (OVA) asthma model, we increased plasminogen activator activity in the lung by administering exogenous uPA or by using mice genetically deficient in the uPA inhibitor plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) to assess the role of this system in asthma pathogenesis. After intraperitoneal OVA sensitization, mice inhaled OVA plus uPA (500 IU/mouse) or saline by ultrasonic nebulization for 3 wk. When studied 24 h after the final exposure, the groups with upregulated plasmin activity had significantly reduced subepithelial fibrosis within the airway walls and had decreased airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) to methacholine. Morphometric analysis showed that subepithelial wall thickening of the bronchi (subepithelial area ratio) was also reduced, as were collagen and alpha-smooth muscle actin. Upregulation of plasmin activity also increased the level of hepatocyte growth factor activity in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, whereas the release of transforming growth factor-beta was decreased. The administration of uPA 1 wk after the last OVA inhalation also significantly reduced lung hydroxyproline content and AHR. These results show that enhancing uPA/plasmin activity lessens the airway remodeling in a murine asthma model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi Kuramoto
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
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Shetty S, Padijnayayveetil J, Tucker T, Stankowska D, Idell S. The fibrinolytic system and the regulation of lung epithelial cell proteolysis, signaling, and cellular viability. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2008; 295:L967-75. [PMID: 18836029 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.90349.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), its receptor (uPAR), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) are key components of the fibrinolytic system and are expressed by lung epithelial cells. uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury (ALI) and pulmonary fibrosis. Recently, it has become clear that regulation of uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 occurs at the posttranscriptional level of mRNA stability in lung epithelial cells. uPA further mediates its own expression in these cells as well as that of uPAR and PAI-1 through induction of changes in mRNA stability. In addition, uPA-mediated signaling controls the expression of the tumor suppressor protein p53 in lung epithelial cells at the posttranslational level. p53 has recently been shown to be a trans-acting uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 mRNA-binding protein that regulates the stability of these mRNAs. It is now clear that signaling initiated by uPA mediates dose-dependent regulation of lung epithelial cell apoptosis and likewise involves changes in p53, uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 expression. These findings demonstrate that the uPA-uPAR-PAI-1 system of lung epithelial cells mediates a broad repertoire of responses that encompass but extend well beyond traditional fibrinolysis, involve newly recognized interactions with p53 that influence the viability of the lung epithelium, and are thereby implicated in the pathogenesis of ALI and its repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreerama Shetty
- Lab C-6, Biomedical Research Bldg., The Univ. of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, 11937 U.S. Hwy. 271, Tyler, TX 75708, USA.
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Gharaee-Kermani M, Hu B, Phan SH, Gyetko MR. The role of urokinase in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and implication for therapy. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008; 17:905-16. [PMID: 18491991 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.17.6.905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive and frequently fatal form of interstitial lung disease for which there are no proven drug therapies. The pathogenesis of IPF is complex and the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA)/plasminogen system participates in the repair process. The balance between the activating enzyme uPA, and its inhibitor PAI-1, is a critical determinant of the amount of scar development that follows. OBJECTIVE To address the role of urokinase in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis and its implications for therapy. METHODS We reviewed a spectrum of therapeutic strategies and focused on fibrinolytic and anticoagulant drugs for IPF patients. RESULTS/CONCLUSION There is currently a search for new pharmacotherapeutic agents that may modulate the fibrogenic pathways in IPF. Either blocking PAI-1 or using uPA itself may be a promising new therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrnaz Gharaee-Kermani
- University of Michigan Medical School, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, 2215 Fuller Road, 11R, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA.
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Zhang G, Eddy AA. Urokinase and its receptors in chronic kidney disease. FRONTIERS IN BIOSCIENCE : A JOURNAL AND VIRTUAL LIBRARY 2008; 13:5462-78. [PMID: 18508599 PMCID: PMC3142275 DOI: 10.2741/3093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on the role of the serine protease urokinase-type plasminogen activator and its high affinity receptor uPAR/CD87 in chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression. An emerging theme is their organ- and site-specific effects. In addition to tubules, uPA is produced by macrophages and fibroblasts in CKD. By activating hepatocyte growth factor and degrading fibrinogen uPA may have anti-fibrotic effects. However renal fibrosis was similar between uPA wild-type and knockout mice in experimental CKD. The uPAR is expressed by renal parenchymal cells and inflammatory cells in a variety of kidney diseases. Such expression appears anti-fibrotic based on studies in uPAR-deficient mice. In CKD uPAR expression is associated with higher uPA activity but its most important effect appears to be due to effects on cell recruitment and migration that involve interactions with a variety of co-receptors and chemoattractant effects of soluble uPAR. Vitronectin and high molecular weight kininogen are alternate uPAR ligands, and receptors in addition to uPAR may also bind directly to uPA and activate cell signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqiang Zhang
- University of Washington and Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Division of Nephrology, 4800 Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
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Abstract
Fibrosis is characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) in basement membranes and interstitial tissues, resulting from increased synthesis or decreased degradation of ECM or both. The plasminogen activator/plasmin system plays an important role in ECM degradation, whereas the plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) is a physiologic inhibitor of plasminogen activators. PAI-1 expression is increased in the lung fibrotic diseases and in experimental fibrosis models. The deletion of the PAI-1 gene reduces, whereas the overexpression of PAI-1 enhances, the susceptibility of animals to lung fibrosis induced by different stimuli, indicating an important role of PAI-1 in the development of lung fibrosis. Many growth factors, including transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), as well as other chemicals/agents, induce PAI-1 expression in cultured cells and in vivo. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) have been shown to mediate the induction of PAI-1 by many of these stimuli. This review summarizes some recent findings that help us to understand the role of PAI-1 in the development of lung fibrosis and ROS/RNS in the regulation of PAI-1 expression during fibrogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Ming Liu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
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Moeller A, Ask K, Warburton D, Gauldie J, Kolb M. The bleomycin animal model: a useful tool to investigate treatment options for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis? Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 40:362-82. [PMID: 17936056 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2007.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 717] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2007] [Revised: 08/17/2007] [Accepted: 08/21/2007] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Different animal models of pulmonary fibrosis have been developed to investigate potential therapies for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The most common is the bleomycin model in rodents (mouse, rat and hamster). Over the years, numerous agents have been shown to inhibit fibrosis in this model. However, to date none of these compounds are used in the clinical management of IPF and none has shown a comparable antifibrotic effect in humans. We performed a systematic review of publications on drug efficacy studies in the bleomycin model to evaluate the value of this model regarding transferability to clinical use. Between 1980 and 2006 we identified 240 experimental studies describing beneficial antifibrotic compounds in the bleomycin model. 222 of those used a preventive regimen (drug given < or =7 days after last bleomycin application), only 13 were therapeutic trials (>7 days after last bleomycin application). In 5 studies we did not find enough details about the timing of drug application to allow inter-study comparison. It is critical to distinguish between drugs interfering with the inflammatory and early fibrogenic response from those preventing progression of fibrosis, the latter likely much more meaningful for clinical application. All potential antifibrotic compounds should be evaluated in the phase of established fibrosis rather than in the early period of bleomycin-induced inflammation for assessment of its antifibrotic properties. Further care should be taken in extrapolation of drugs successfully tested in the bleomycin model due to partial reversibility of bleomycin-induced fibrosis over time. The use of alternative and more robust animal models, which better reflect human IPF, is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Moeller
- Department of Medicine, Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling with successive tissue fibrosis is a key feature of chronic cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and restenosis. The atherogenic changes underlying these pathologies result from chronification of an acute repair response towards injurious and inflammatory stimuli. Thereby functional tissue is replaced by excessive ECM deposition. In the kidney, impaired remodeling is a major cause of perivascular, interstitial, and glomerular fibrosis but also a common complication of chronic hypertension. Experimental evidence points to the matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) and their intrinsic inhibitors, the tissue inhibitors of MMPs as key mediators of atherogenic and fibrotic pathologies. Mechanistically, a deregulation in ECM turnover tightly correlates with an increased production and release of proinflammatory and profibrotic factors including interleukin-1beta, transforming growth factor beta, angiotensin II, and reactive oxygen species. Unlike these factors the pleiotropic messenger molecule nitric oxide (NO) by acting as the major physiological vasodilator has emerged as one of the most atheroprotective factors. However, under inflammatory conditions NO does acquire proatherogenic and profibrotic properties thereby exacerbating tissue fibrosis. In this review, the mechanisms underlying both opposing properties of NO on perivascular ECM remodeling will exemplarily be discussed for renal fibrosis with a particular focus on the MMPs and intrinsic protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Eberhardt
- Pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, Klinikum der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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Horowitz JC, Thannickal VJ. Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in pulmonary fibrosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 27:600-12. [PMID: 17195137 PMCID: PMC2225581 DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-957332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary fibrosis represents the sequelae of a variety of acute and chronic lung injuries of known and unknown etiologies. Tissue specimens obtained from patients with pulmonary fibrosis, regardless of the etiology, consistently show evidence of an ongoing wound-repair response. Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions have critical roles in normal lung development, tissue repair processes, and fibrosis. Current hypotheses propose that dysregulated function of, and impaired communication between, epithelial and mesenchymal cells prevent resolution of the wound-repair response and contribute to the pathobiology of pulmonary fibrosis. This hypothesis is supported by abundant evidence from patients, animal models, and cell-culture studies demonstrating abnormalities in epithelial cell and mesenchymal cell activities including proliferation, differentiation, and survival. This article reviews the aberrant epithelial and mesenchymal cellular phenotypes found in the context of pulmonary fibrosis and discusses the mechanisms that perpetuate these cellular phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey C Horowitz
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
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Yamaguchi I, Lopez-Guisa JM, Cai X, Collins SJ, Okamura DM, Eddy AA. Endogenous urokinase lacks antifibrotic activity during progressive renal injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2007; 293:F12-9. [PMID: 17356128 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00380.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Interstitial fibrosis is a universal feature of progressive kidney disease. Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) is thought to participate for several reasons: 1) uPA is produced predominantly in kidney, 2) its inhibitor plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) is a strong promoter of interstitial fibrosis, whereas its receptor (uPAR) attenuates renal fibrosis, 3) uPA reduces fibrosis in liver and lung, and 4) uPA can activate hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), a potent antifibrotic growth factor. The present study tested the hypothesis that endogenous uPA reduces fibrosis severity by investigating the unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model in wild-type (WT) and uPA-/- mice. Several outcomes were measured: renal collagen 3-21 days after UUO, macrophage accumulation (F4/80 Western blotting), interstitial myofibroblast density (alpha-smooth muscle actin immunostaining), and tubular injury (E-cadherin and Ksp-cadherin Western blotting). None of these measures differed significantly between WT and uPA-/- mice. uPA genetic deficiency was not associated with compensatory changes in renal uPAR mRNA levels, PAI-1 protein levels, or tissue plasminogen activator activity levels after UUO. Despite the known ability of uPA to activate latent HGF, immunoblotting failed to detect significant differences in levels of the active HGF alpha-chain and phosphorylated cMET (the activated HGF receptor) between the WT and uPA-/- groups. These findings suggest that the profibrotic actions of PAI-1 are uPA independent and that an alternative pathway must activate HGF in kidney. Finally, these results highlight a significant organ-specific difference in basic fibrogenic pathways, as enhanced uPA activity has been reported to attenuate pulmonary and hepatic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuyo Yamaguchi
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105-0371, USA
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Pleural fibrosis is a double-edged sword in clinical settings. Successful induction of pleural fibrosis is the basis of therapeutic pleurodesis. On the other hand, pleural septations and fibrosis are undesirable outcomes in pleural infection and fibrothoraces. The significance of growth factors in the pathogenesis of pleural fibrosis has become increasingly apparent. RECENT FINDINGS Recent findings have indicated that transforming growth factor beta is a key mediator of pleural fibrosis and demonstrated the therapeutic potential of both transforming growth factor beta itself and transforming growth factor beta inhibitors. Basic fibroblast growth factor has been highlighted as a key factor in successful pleurodesis, and in the formation of pleural effusions. Vascular endothelial growth factor inhibition has been shown to decrease pleural fibrosis in vivo. By contrast, hepatocyte growth factor stimulates non-fibrotic healing, while inhibition increases fibrosis. SUMMARY The actions of the growth factors, and their inhibitors, are potentially and/or currently applicable in a clinical setting. Understanding the biology of these growth factors may allow therapeutic manipulation of these cytokines to create pleurodesis or to inhibit pleural (and peritoneal) adhesion/fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven E Mutsaers
- Asthma, Allergy & Respiratory Research Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
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