Voltammetric determination of chlorpromazine hydrochloride and promethazine hydrochloride with the use of multivariate calibration

Determination of promethazine in forensic samples using multi-walled carbon nanotube-gold nanoparticle electrochemical sensor

An electrochemical sensor was developed based on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the determination of promethazine (PMZ) in 'purple drank', pharmaceutical formulations, and synthetic saliva. The oxidation of PMZ at the modified electrode occurred at a higher cathodic potential and produced a higher sensitivity compared to the unmodified GCE. The morphology of the modified electrode was characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The presence of MWCNTs and AuNPs was confirmed. The optimized parameters included the concentration and pH of the supporting electrolyte, amount of modifiers used to fabricate the electrode, deposition potential, and time. Using these optimized conditions, the method has a linear range from 0.5 to 100 μmol L-1, with a R2 value of 0.9991. The limit of detection (3SDblank/slope) was 0.13 μmol L-1. The proposed electrochemical sensor was successfully applied for the determination of PMZ in 'purple drank', pharmaceutical formulations, and spiked synthetic saliva samples. The results obtained from this sensor were in statistical agreement with the values obtained using the reference gas chromatography-flame ionization method.

Simultaneous electrochemical determination of morphine and methadone by using CMK-5 mesoporous carbon and multivariate calibration

For the first time, a sensitive electrochemical sensor using a glassy carbon electrode modified with CMK-5 Ordered mesoporous carbon was fabricated for simultaneous analysis of morphine and methadone. Modern electrochemical FFT-SWV techniques and partial least-squares as a multivariable analysis were used in this method. CMK-5 nanostructures were characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and Raman spectroscopy. Variables such as accumulation time and pH for the proposed sensor were optimized before quantitative analysis. To train the proposed sensor, standard mixtures of morphine (MOR), and methadone (MET) were prepared in the established linear ranges of the analyzes. The results obtained from training samples were used for PLS modeling. The efficiency of the model was determined using test and real matrix samples. The root mean square error of prediction and the squared correlation coefficients (R²_p) for MET and MOR were estimated to be 0.00772 and 0.00892 and 0.948 to 0.990, respectively. The recoveries in urine samples were reported to be 97.0 and 105.6% for both MOR and MET, respectively.

Activated Porous Carbon Supported Pd and ZnO Nanocatalysts for Trace Sensing of Carbaryl Pesticide in Water and Food Products

Nanomaterials-based sensors are a dire need for credible and accurate determination of pesticides in water and food samples as a monitoring tool. Herein, electrocatalysts of Pd and ZnO NPs supported...

Gold nanoparticles capped with polysaccharides extracted from pineapple gum: Evaluation of their hemocompatibility and electrochemical sensing properties

In the present work, gold nanoparticles were synthesized through a green route by using, for the first time, polysaccharides extracted from pineapple gum (PG) as the reducing and capping agent. The obtained nanoparticles (AuNPs-PG) were characterized by UV-VIS, FTIR, TEM, FESEM, EDX, XRD, and zeta potential measurements, which confirmed that PG was effective to produce AuNPs with an average diameter of 10.3 ± 1.6 nm. The AuNPs-PG were employed as the modifier of glassy carbon paste electrodes (CPE/AuNPs-PG), which were applied as sensitive electrochemical sensors to the determination of the antihistamine drug promethazine hydrochloride (PMZ). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements showed that the AuNPs-PG could enhance the electronic transfer properties of the glassy carbon paste, which was due to their large surface area and high electrical conductivity. After optimization of the instrumental parameters of square wave voltammetry (SWV) through a Box-Behnken factorial design, a linear relationship between the anodic peak current and PMZ concentration was obtained in the range from 2.0 to 15.7 μmol L^-1 in McIlvaine buffer solution pH 5.0. The detection and quantification limits were found to be equal to 1.33 and 4.44 μmol L^-1, respectively. The developed sensors could successfully quantify PMZ in different commercial pharmaceutical formulations, with satisfactory levels of accuracy and precision. In addition to improving the analytical features of the electrodes, hemocompatibility assays carried out on erythrocytes and leukocytes showed that the AuNPs-PG do not exhibit toxic effects on the referred cells. This interesting behavior enables their use in biocompatible electrochemical sensing platforms as well as for future biomedical investigations.

Subnanomolar detection of promethazine abuse using a gold nanoparticle-graphene nanoplatelet-modified electrode

A simple, sensitive, and effective adsorptive stripping voltammetric sensor for the detection of trace-level promethazine was created based on a gold nanoparticle-graphene nanoplatelet-modified glassy carbon electrode (AuNP-GrNP/GCE). AuNP-GrNP nanocomposites were synthesized using an electroless deposition process, and the morphology was characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The electrochemical behavior and detection of promethazine at the AuNP-GrNP/GCE were investigated utilizing cyclic voltammetry and adsorptive stripping voltammetry. The AuNP-GrNP/GCE showed outstanding synergistic electrochemical activity for promethazine oxidation, a highly active surface area, great adsorptivity, and outstanding catalytic properties. The electrolyte pH, amount of AuNP-GrNP nanocomposite, preconcentration potential (vs. Ag/AgCl), and time were optimized to obtain a high performance electrochemical sensor. Under optimal conditions, the proposed sensor displayed two linear concentration ranges from 1.0 nmol L^-1 to 1.0 μmol L^-1 and from 1.0 to 10 μmol L^-1. The limits of detection and quantitation were 0.40 and 1.4 nmol L^-1, respectively. This sensor displayed high sensitivity, a capability for rapid analysis, and excellent repeatability and reproducibility. The developed sensor was effective and practical for promethazine detection in biological fluids and forensic samples, and the obtained results exhibited excellent agreement with the results obtained using the method described in the British Pharmacopoeia. Graphical abstract.

Electrochemical Analysis of Antipsychotics

Introduction:

Schizophrenia is seizures accompanied by severe psychotic symptoms, and a steady state of continuation in the form of periods of stagnation. Antipsychotics are now the basis of treatment for schizophrenia and there is no other molecule that is antipsychotic priority in treatment. Antipsychotics can be classified into two groups; dopamine receptor antagonists such as promazine, fluphenazine etc. and serotonin-dopamine antagonists including risperidone, olanzapine, ziprasidone, aripiprazole etc.

Materials and Methods:

Electrochemical methods have been used for the determination of antipsychotic agent just as used in the determination of many drug agents. Nearly all of the antipsychotics are electroactive and can be analyzed by electrochemical methods. Electroanalytical methods offer generally high sensitivity, are compatible with modern techniques, have low cost, low requirements, and compact design. Among the most commonly used types, there are cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, square wave voltammetry and linear sweep voltammetry.

Conclusion:

The aim of this review is to evaluate the main line and the advantages and uses of electroanalytical methods that employed for the determination of antipsychotic medication agents used in schizophrenia. Moreover, applications of the methods to pharmaceutical analysis of Antipsychotics upto- date is also summarized in a table.

Developing a novel paper-based enzymatic biosensor assisted by digital image processing and first-order multivariate calibration for rapid determination of nitrate in food samples

For the first time, a novel analytical method based on a paper based enzymatic biosensor assisted by digital image processing and first-order multivariate calibration has been reported for rapid determination of nitrate in food samples. The platform of the biosensor includes a piece of Whatman filter paper impregnated with Griess reagent (3-nitroaniline, 1-naphthylamine and hydrochloric acid) and nitrate reductase. After dropping a distinct volume of nitrate solution onto the biosensor surface, nitrate reductase selectively reduces nitrate to nitrite and then the Griess reagent selectively reacts with nitrite to produce a red colored azo dye. Therefore, the color intensity of the produced azo dye is correlated with nitrate concentration. After image capture, the images were processed and digitized in the MATLAB environment by the use of an image processing toolbox and the vectors produced by the digital image processing step were used as inputs of the first-order multivariate calibration algorithms. Several multivariate calibration algorithms and pre-processing techniques have been used to build multivariate calibration models for verifying which technique offers the best predictions towards nitrate concentrations in synthetic samples and the best algorithm has been chosen for nitrate determination in potato, onion, carrot, cabbage and lettuce samples as real cases.

For the first time, a novel analytical method based on a paper based enzymatic biosensor assisted by digital image processing and first-order multivariate calibration has been reported for rapid determination of nitrate in food samples.

Highly selective electrochemical detection of antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine in drug and human urine samples based on peas-like strontium molybdate as an electrocatalyst

Electrochemical detection of antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine based on peas-like strontium molybdate as an electrocatalyst.

Interactions of phenothiazine drugs with surfactants: a detailed physicochemical overview

Phenothiazine drugs have been the subject of great interest due to their interesting aggregation properties and ability to interact with surfactants, model lipid bilayers, and biomembranes. Since these drugs show enormous pharmacological actions and deposits on the biomembranes, their pharmacological activities seem to be related to the drug-membrane interactions or to the absorbability on the membrane. Further, the mechanisms for the various biological activities of phenothiazines can be explained by exploring these drug-membrane interactions. Keeping these points in view, many researchers have investigated the interactions of these drugs with surfactants. This review describes the physicochemical aspects of the interactions between phenothiazine drugs and surfactants which have been discussed under three sections: (i) micellar and interfacial studies, (ii) spectroscopic studies, (iii) phase separation studies (CP) and (iv) miscellaneous.

Ionophore-based potentiometric sensors for the flow-injection determination of promethazine hydrochloride in pharmaceutical formulations and human urine

Plasticised poly(vinyl chloride)-based membranes containing the ionophores (α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins (CD), dibenzo-18-crown-6 (DB18C6) and dibenzo-30-crown-10 (DB30C10) were evaluated for their potentiometric response towards promethazine (PM) in a flow injection analysis (FIA) set-up. Good responses were obtained when β- and γ-CDs, and DB30C10 were used. The performance characteristics were further improved when tetrakis(4-chlorophenyl) borate (KTPB) was added to the membrane. The sensor based on β-CD, bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (BEHA) and KTPB exhibited the best performance among the eighteen sensor compositions that were tested. The response was linear from 1 × 10⁻⁵ to 1 × 10⁻² M, slope was 61.3 mV decade⁻¹, the pH independent region ranged from 4.5 to 7.0, a limit of detection of 5.3 × 10⁻⁶ M was possible and a lifetime of more than a month was observed when used in the FIA system. Other plasticisers such as dioctyl phenylphosphonate and tributyl phosphate do not show significant improvements in the quality of the sensors. The promising sensors were further tested for the effects of foreign ions (Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Co²⁺, Cu²⁺, Cr³⁺, Fe³⁺, glucose, fructose). FIA conditions (e.g., effects of flow rate, injection volume, pH of the carrier stream) were also studied when the best sensor was used (based on β-CD). The sensor was applied to the determination of PM in four pharmaceutical preparations and human urine that were spiked with different levels of PM. Good agreement between the sensor and the manufacturer’s claimed values (for pharmaceutical preparations) was obtained, while mean recoveries of 98.6% were obtained for spiked urine samples. The molecular recognition features of the sensors as revealed by molecular modelling were rationalised by the nature of the interactions and complexation energies between the host and guest molecules.

Surface-Enhanced Oxidation and Determination of Isothipendyl Hydrochloride at an Electrochemical Sensing Film Constructed by Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes

The electrochemical behavior of isothipendyl hydrochloride (IPH) was investigated at bare and multiwalled-carbon-nanotube modified glassy carbon electrode (MWCNT-GCE). IPH (55 μM) showed two oxidation peaks in Britton-Robinson (BR) buffer of pH 7.0. The oxidation process of IPH was observed to be irreversible over the pH range of 2.5–9.0. The influence of pH, scan rate, and concentration of the drug on anodic peak was studied. A differential pulse voltammetric method with good precision and accuracy was developed for the determination of IPH in pure and biological fluids. The peak current was found to be linearly dependent on the concentration of IPH in the range of 1.25–55 μM. The values of limit of detection and limit of quantification were noticed to be 0.284 and 0.949 μM, respectively.

Portable system of programmable syringe pump with potentiometer for determination of promethazine in pharmaceutical applications

A simple and fast-automated method was developed and validated for the assay of promethazine hydrochloride in pharmaceutical formulations, based on the oxidation of promethazine by cerium in an acidic medium. A portable system, consisting of a programmable syringe pump connected to a potentiometer, was constructed. The developed change in potential during promethazine oxidation was monitored. The related optimum working conditions, such as supporting electrolyte concentration, cerium(IV) concentration and flow rate were optimized. The proposed method was successfully applied to pharmaceutical samples as well as synthetic ones. The obtained results were realized by the official British pharmacopoeia (BP) method and comparable results were obtained. The obtained t-value indicates no significant differences between the results of the proposed and BP methods, with the advantages of the proposed method being simple, sensitive and cost effective.