The role of transmembrane span 2 in the structure and function of subunit a of the ATP synthase from Escherichia coli

ATP Synthesis by Oxidative Phosphorylation

The F1F0-ATP synthase (EC 3.6.1.34) is a remarkable enzyme that functions as a rotary motor. It is found in the inner membranes of Escherichia coli and is responsible for the synthesis of ATP in response to an electrochemical proton gradient. Under some conditions, the enzyme functions reversibly and uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to generate the gradient. The ATP synthase is composed of eight different polypeptide subunits in a stoichiometry of α3β3γδεab2c10. Traditionally they were divided into two physically separable units: an F1 that catalyzes ATP hydrolysis (α3β3γδε) and a membrane-bound F0 sector that transports protons (ab2c10). In terms of rotary function, the subunits can be divided into rotor subunits (γεc10) and stator subunits (α3β3δab2). The stator subunits include six nucleotide binding sites, three catalytic and three noncatalytic, formed primarily by the β and α subunits, respectively. The stator also includes a peripheral stalk composed of δ and b subunits, and part of the proton channel in subunit a. Among the rotor subunits, the c subunits form a ring in the membrane, and interact with subunit a to form the proton channel. Subunits γ and ε bind to the c-ring subunits, and also communicate with the catalytic sites through interactions with α and β subunits. The eight subunits are expressed from a single operon, and posttranscriptional processing and translational regulation ensure that the polypeptides are made at the proper stoichiometry. Recent studies, including those of other species, have elucidated many structural and rotary properties of this enzyme.

Sequence co-evolution gives 3D contacts and structures of protein complexes

Protein-protein interactions are fundamental to many biological processes. Experimental screens have identified tens of thousands of interactions, and structural biology has provided detailed functional insight for select 3D protein complexes. An alternative rich source of information about protein interactions is the evolutionary sequence record. Building on earlier work, we show that analysis of correlated evolutionary sequence changes across proteins identifies residues that are close in space with sufficient accuracy to determine the three-dimensional structure of the protein complexes. We evaluate prediction performance in blinded tests on 76 complexes of known 3D structure, predict protein-protein contacts in 32 complexes of unknown structure, and demonstrate how evolutionary couplings can be used to distinguish between interacting and non-interacting protein pairs in a large complex. With the current growth of sequences, we expect that the method can be generalized to genome-wide elucidation of protein-protein interaction networks and used for interaction predictions at residue resolution.

Interactions between subunits a and b in the rotary ATP synthase as determined by cross-linking

The interaction of the membrane traversing stator subunits a and b of the rotary ATP synthase was probed by substitution of a single Cys into each subunit with subsequent Cu(2+) catalyzed cross-linking. Extensive interaction between the transmembrane (TM) region of one b subunit and TM2 of subunit a was indicated by cross-linking with 6 Cys pairs introduced into these regions. Additional disulfide cross-linking was observed between the N-terminus of subunit b and the periplasmic loop connecting TM4 and TM5 of subunit a. Finally, benzophenone-4-maleimide derivatized Cys in the 2-3 periplasmic loop of subunit a were shown to cross-link with the periplasmic N-terminal region of subunit b. These experiments help to define the juxtaposition of subunits b and a in the ATP synthase.

The ATP synthase a-subunit of extreme alkaliphiles is a distinct variant: mutations in the critical alkaliphile-specific residue Lys-180 and other residues that support alkaliphile oxidative phosphorylation

A lysine residue in the putative proton uptake pathway of the ATP synthase a-subunit is found only in alkaliphilic Bacillus species and is proposed to play roles in proton capture, retention and passage to the synthase rotor. Here, Lys-180 was replaced with alanine (Ala), glycine (Gly), cysteine (Cys), arginine (Arg), or histidine (His) in the chromosome of alkaliphilic Bacillus pseudofirmus OF4. All mutants exhibited octylglucoside-stimulated ATPase activity and β-subunit levels at least as high as wild-type. Purified mutant F(1)F(0)-ATP synthases all contained substantial a-subunit levels. The mutants exhibited diverse patterns of native (no octylglucoside) ATPase activity and a range of defects in malate growth and in vitro ATP synthesis at pH 10.5. ATP synthesis by the Ala, Gly, and His mutants was also impaired at pH 7.5 in the presence of a protonophoric uncoupler. Thus Lys-180 plays a role when the protonmotive force is reduced at near neutral, not just at high pH. The Arg mutant exhibited no ATP synthesis activity in the alkaliphile setting although activity was reported for a K180R mutant of a thermoalkaliphile synthase (McMillan, D. G., Keis, S., Dimroth, P., and Cook, G. M. (2007) J. Biol. Chem. 282, 17395-17404). The hypothesis that a-subunits from extreme alkaliphiles and the thermoalkaliphile represent distinct variants was supported by demonstration of the importance of additional alkaliphile-specific a-subunit residues, not found in the thermoalkaliphile, for malate growth of B. pseudofirmus OF4. Finally, a mutant B. pseudofirmus OF4 synthase with switched positions of Lys-180 (helix 4) and Gly-212 (helix 5) retained significant coupled synthase activity accompanied by proton leakiness.

The rotary mechanism of the ATP synthase

The F0F1 ATP synthase is a large complex of at least 22 subunits, more than half of which are in the membranous F0 sector. This nearly ubiquitous transporter is responsible for the majority of ATP synthesis in oxidative and photo-phosphorylation, and its overall structure and mechanism have remained conserved throughout evolution. Most examples utilize the proton motive force to drive ATP synthesis except for a few bacteria, which use a sodium motive force. A remarkable feature of the complex is the rotary movement of an assembly of subunits that plays essential roles in both transport and catalytic mechanisms. This review addresses the role of rotation in catalysis of ATP synthesis/hydrolysis and the transport of protons or sodium.

ATP synthase: subunit-subunit interactions in the stator stalk

In ATP synthase, proton translocation through the Fo subcomplex and ATP synthesis/hydrolysis in the F1 subcomplex are coupled by subunit rotation. The static, non-rotating portions of F1 and Fo are attached to each other via the peripheral "stator stalk", which has to withstand elastic strain during subunit rotation. In Escherichia coli, the stator stalk consists of subunits b2delta; in other organisms, it has three or four different subunits. Recent advances in this area include affinity measurements between individual components of the stator stalk as well as a detailed analysis of the interaction between subunit delta (or its mitochondrial counterpart, the oligomycin-sensitivity conferring protein, OSCP) and F1. The current status of our knowledge of the structure of the stator stalk and of the interactions between its subunits will be discussed in this review.

Structure and Function of Subunit a of the ATP Synthase of Escherichia coli

The structure of subunit a of the Escherichia coli ATP synthase has been probed by construction of more than one hundred monocysteine substitutions. Surface labeling with 3-N-maleimidyl-propionyl biocytin (MPB) has defined five transmembrane helices, the orientation of the protein in the membrane, and information about the relative exposure of the loops connecting these helices. Cross-linking studies using TFPAM-3 (N-(4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzyl)-3-maleimido-propionamide) and benzophenone-4-maleimide have revealed which elements of subunit a are near subunits b and c. Use of a chemical protease reagent, 5-(-bromoacetamido)-1,10-phenanthroline-copper, has indicated that the periplasmic end of transmembrane helix 5 is near that of transmembrane helix 2.

Torque generation by the Fo motor of the sodium ATPase

Based on recent structural and functional findings, we have constructed a mathematical model for the sodium-driven Fo motor of the F1Fo-ATPase from the anaerobic bacterium Propionigenium modestum. The model reveals the mechanochemical principles underlying the Fo motor's operation, and explains all of the existing experimental data on wild-type and mutant Fo motors. In particular, the model predicts a nonmonotonic dependence of the ATP hydrolysis activity on the sodium concentration, a prediction confirmed by new experiments. To explain experimental observations, the positively charged stator residue (R227) must assume different positions in the ATP synthesis and hydrolysis directions. This work also illustrates how to extract a motor mechanism from dynamical experimental observations in the absence of complete structural information.