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Khademi Z, Heravi MM. Applications of Claisen condensations in total synthesis of natural products. An old reaction, a new perspective. Tetrahedron 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2021.132573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Lanéelle MA, Tropis M, Daffé M. Current knowledge on mycolic acids in Corynebacterium glutamicum and their relevance for biotechnological processes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2013; 97:9923-30. [PMID: 24113823 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-5265-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Corynebacterium glutamicum is the world's largest producer of glutamate and lysine. Industrial glutamate overproduction is induced by empirical processes, such as biotin limitation, supplementation with specific surfactants or addition of sublethal concentration of certain antibiotics to the culture media. Although Gram-positive bacteria, C. glutamicum and related bacterial species and genera contain, in addition to the plasma membrane, an outer permeability membrane similar to that of Gram-negative microorganisms. As the amino acids have to cross both membranes, their integrity, composition and fluidity influence the export process. While the precise mechanism of the export of the amino acids by C. glutamicum is not fully understood, the excretion of amino acids through the inner membrane involved at least a major export system mechanosensitive channel MscS family (MscCG) encoded by NCgl1221. As the various industrial treatments have been shown to affect the lipid content of the bacterial cell, it is strongly believed that defects in the hallmark of the outer membrane, 2-alkyl, 3-hydroxylated long-chain fatty acids (mycolic acids), could be key factors in the glutamate overproduction. This review aims at giving an overview of the current knowledge on mycolic acids structure, biosynthesis and transfer in C. glutamicum and their relevance for amino acid biotechnological production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Antoinette Lanéelle
- Team « Mycobacterial Cell Envelopes: Structure, Biosynthesis and Roles », Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (IPBS), UMR 5089, BP 64182, 205, Route de Narbonne, 31077, Toulouse Cedex 04, France
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Migliardo F, Salmeron C, Bayan N. A neutron scattering study on the stability of trehalose mycolates under thermal stress. Chem Phys 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2012.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Driver CH, Balogun MO, Toschi G, Verschoor JA, Baird MS, Pilcher LA. A biomimetic approach to the synthesis of a mycolic acid motif. Tetrahedron Lett 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2009.12.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Ghosh S, Tiwari P, Pandey S, Misra AK, Chaturvedi V, Gaikwad A, Bhatnagar S, Sinha S. Synthesis and evaluation of antitubercular activity of glycosyl thio- and sulfonyl acetamide derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2008; 18:4002-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2008] [Revised: 05/08/2008] [Accepted: 06/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Lea-Smith DJ, Pyke JS, Tull D, McConville MJ, Coppel RL, Crellin PK. The reductase that catalyzes mycolic motif synthesis is required for efficient attachment of mycolic acids to arabinogalactan. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:11000-8. [PMID: 17308303 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m608686200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids are essential components of the cell walls of bacteria belonging to the suborder Corynebacterineae, including the important human pathogens Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae. Mycolic acid biosynthesis is complex and the target of several frontline antimycobacterial drugs. The condensation of two fatty acids to form a 2-alkyl-3-keto mycolate precursor and the subsequent reduction of this precursor represent two key and highly conserved steps in this pathway. Although the enzyme catalyzing the condensation step has recently been identified, little is known about the putative reductase. Using an extensive bioinformatic comparison of the genomes of M. tuberculosis and Corynebacterium glutamicum, we identified NCgl2385, the orthologue of Rv2509 in M. tuberculosis, as a potential reductase candidate. Deletion of the gene in C. glutamicum resulted in a slow growing strain that was deficient in arabinogalactan-linked mycolates and synthesized abnormal forms of the mycolate-containing glycolipids trehalose dicorynomycolate and trehalose monocorynomycolate. Analysis of the native and acetylated trehalose glycolipids by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry indicated that these novel glycolipids contained an unreduced beta-keto ester. This was confirmed by analysis of sodium borodeuteride-reduced mycolic acids by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Reintroduction of the NCgl2385 gene into the mutant restored the transfer of mature mycolic acids to both the trehalose glycolipids and cell wall arabinogalactan. These data indicate that NCgl2385, which we have designated CmrA, is essential for the production of mature trehalose mycolates and subsequent covalent attachment of mycolic acids onto the cell wall, thus representing a focus for future structural and pathogenicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Lea-Smith
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, and Victorian Bioinformatics Consortium, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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Al Dulayymi JR, Baird MS, Roberts E, Minnikin DE. The synthesis of single enantiomers of meromycolic acids from mycobacterial wax esters. Tetrahedron 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2006.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Al-Dulayymi JR, Baird MS, Mohammed H, Roberts E, Clegg W. The synthesis of one enantiomer of the α-methyl-trans-cyclopropane unit of mycolic acids. Tetrahedron 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2006.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Al Dulayymi JR, Baird MS, Roberts E. The synthesis of a single enantiomer of a major α-mycolic acid of M. tuberculosis. Tetrahedron 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2005.09.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Portevin D, de Sousa-D'Auria C, Montrozier H, Houssin C, Stella A, Lanéelle MA, Bardou F, Guilhot C, Daffé M. The acyl-AMP ligase FadD32 and AccD4-containing acyl-CoA carboxylase are required for the synthesis of mycolic acids and essential for mycobacterial growth: identification of the carboxylation product and determination of the acyl-CoA carboxylase components. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:8862-74. [PMID: 15632194 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m408578200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids are major and specific long-chain fatty acids of the cell envelope of several important human pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. leprae, and Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Their biosynthesis is essential for mycobacterial growth and represents an attractive target for developing new antituberculous drugs. We have previously shown that the pks13 gene encodes condensase, the enzyme that performs the final condensation step of mycolic acid biosynthesis and is flanked by two genes, fadD32 and accD4. To determine the functions of the gene products we generated two mutants of C. glutamicum with an insertion/deletion within either fadD32 or accD4. The two mutant strains were deficient in mycolic acid production and exhibited the colony morphology that typifies the mycolate-less mutants of corynebacteria. Application of multiple analytical approaches to the analysis of the mutants demonstrated the accumulation of a tetradecylmalonic acid in the DeltafadD32::km mutant and its absence from the DeltaaccD4::km strain. The parental corynebacterial phenotype was restored upon the transfer of the wild-type fadD32 and accD4 genes in the mutants. These data demonstrated that both FadD32 and AccD4-containing acyl-CoA carboxylase are required for the production of mycolic acids. They also prove that the proteins catalyze, respectively, the activation of one fatty acid substrate and the carboxylation of the other substrate, solving the long-debated question of the mechanism involved in the condensation reaction. We used comparative genomics and applied a combination of molecular biology and proteomic technologies to the analysis of proteins that co-immunoprecipitated with AccD4. This resulted in the identification of AccA3 and AccD5 as subunits of the acyl-CoA carboxylase. Finally, we used conditionally replicative plasmids to show that both the fadD32 and accD4 genes are essential for the survival of M. smegmatis. Thus, in addition to Pks13, FadD32 and AccD4 are promising targets for the development of new antimicrobial drugs against pathogenic species of mycobacteria and related microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Portevin
- Département Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes, Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale, CNRS and Université Paul Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex, France
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Schweizer E, Hofmann J. Microbial type I fatty acid synthases (FAS): major players in a network of cellular FAS systems. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2004; 68:501-17, table of contents. [PMID: 15353567 PMCID: PMC515254 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.68.3.501-517.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The present review focuses on microbial type I fatty acid synthases (FASs), demonstrating their structural and functional diversity. Depending on their origin and biochemical function, multifunctional type I FAS proteins form dimers or hexamers with characteristic organization of their catalytic domains. A single polypeptide may contain one or more sets of the eight FAS component functions. Alternatively, these functions may split up into two different and mutually complementing subunits. Targeted inactivation of the individual yeast FAS acylation sites allowed us to define their roles during the overall catalytic process. In particular, their pronounced negative cooperativity is presumed to coordinate the FAS initiation and chain elongation reactions. Expression of the unlinked genes, FAS1 and FAS2, is in part constitutive and in part subject to repression by the phospholipid precursors inositol and choline. The interplay of the involved regulatory proteins, Rap1, Reb1, Abf1, Ino2/Ino4, Opi1, Sin3 and TFIIB, has been elucidated in considerable detail. Balanced levels of subunits alpha and beta are ensured by an autoregulatory effect of FAS1 on FAS2 expression and by posttranslational degradation of excess FAS subunits. The functional specificity of type I FAS multienzymes usually requires the presence of multiple FAS systems within the same cell. De novo synthesis of long-chain fatty acids, mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis, acylation of certain secondary metabolites and coenzymes, fatty acid elongation, and the vast diversity of mycobacterial lipids each result from specific FAS activities. The microcompartmentalization of FAS activities in type I multienzymes may thus allow for both the controlled and concerted action of multiple FAS systems within the same cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eckhart Schweizer
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie der Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen 91058, Germany
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Gande R, Gibson KJC, Brown AK, Krumbach K, Dover LG, Sahm H, Shioyama S, Oikawa T, Besra GS, Eggeling L. Acyl-CoA carboxylases (accD2 and accD3), together with a unique polyketide synthase (Cg-pks), are key to mycolic acid biosynthesis in Corynebacterianeae such as Corynebacterium glutamicum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:44847-57. [PMID: 15308633 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m408648200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The Corynebacterianeae such as Corynebacterium glutamicum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis possess several unique and structurally diverse lipids, including the genus-specific mycolic acids. Although the function of a number of genes involved in fatty acid and mycolic acid biosynthesis is known, information relevant to the initial steps within these biosynthetic pathways is relatively sparse. Interestingly, the genomes of Corynebacterianeae possess a high number of accD genes, whose gene products resemble the beta-subunit of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase of Escherichia coli, providing the activated intermediate for fatty acid synthesis. We present here our studies on four putative accD genes found in C. glutamicum. Although growth of the accD4 mutant remained unchanged, growth of the accD1 mutant was strongly impaired and partially recovered by the addition of exogenous oleic acid. Overexpression of accD1 and accBC, encoding the carboxylase alpha-subunit, resulted in an 8-fold increase in malonyl-CoA formation from acetyl-CoA in cell lysates, providing evidence that accD1 encodes a carboxyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of malonyl-CoA. Interestingly, fatty acid profiles remained unchanged in both our accD2 and accD3 mutants, but a complete loss of mycolic acids, either as organic extractable trehalose and glucose mycolates or as cell wall-bound mycolates, was observed. These two carboxyltransferases are also retained in all Corynebacterianeae, including Mycobacterium leprae, constituting two distinct groups of orthologs. Furthermore, carboxyl fixation assays, as well as a study of a Cg-pks deletion mutant, led us to conclude that accD2 and accD3 are key to mycolic acid biosynthesis, thus providing a carboxylated intermediate during condensation of the mero-chain and alpha-branch directed by the pks-encoded polyketide synthase. This study illustrates that the high number of accD paralogs have evolved to represent specific variations on the well known basic theme of providing carboxylated intermediates in lipid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Gande
- Institute for Biotechnology, Research Centre Juelich, D-52425 Juelich, Germany
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Dover LG, Cerdeño-Tárraga AM, Pallen MJ, Parkhill J, Besra GS. Comparative cell wall core biosynthesis in the mycolated pathogens, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Corynebacterium diphtheriae. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2004; 28:225-50. [PMID: 15109786 DOI: 10.1016/j.femsre.2003.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2003] [Revised: 09/23/2003] [Accepted: 10/04/2003] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent determination of the complete genome sequence of Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the aetiological agent of diphtheria, has allowed a detailed comparison of its physiology with that of its closest sequenced pathogenic relative Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Of major importance to the pathogenicity and resilience of the latter is its particularly complex cell envelope. The corynebacteria share many of the features of this extraordinary structure although to a lesser level of complexity. The cell envelope of M. tuberculosis has provided the molecular targets for several of the major anti-tubercular drugs. Given a backdrop of emerging multi-drug resistant strains of the organism (MDR-TB) and its continuing global threat to human health, the search for novel anti-tubercular agents is of paramount importance. The unique structure of this cell wall and the importance of its integrity to the viability of the organism suggest that the search for novel drug targets within the array of enzymes responsible for its construction may prove fruitful. Although the application of modern bioinformatics techniques to the 'mining' of the M. tuberculosis genome has already increased our knowledge of the biosynthesis and assembly of the mycobacterial cell wall, several issues remain uncertain. Further analysis by comparison with its relatives may bring clarity and aid the early identification of novel cellular targets for new anti-tuberculosis drugs. In order to facilitate this aim, this review intends to illustrate the broad similarities and highlight the structural differences between the two bacterial envelopes and discuss the genetics of their biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn G Dover
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
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Bayan N, Houssin C, Chami M, Leblon G. Mycomembrane and S-layer: two important structures of Corynebacterium glutamicum cell envelope with promising biotechnology applications. J Biotechnol 2003; 104:55-67. [PMID: 12948629 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1656(03)00163-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Corynebacteria belong to a distinct Gram-positive group of bacteria including mycobacteria and nocardia, which are characterized by the presence of mycolic acids in their cell wall. These bacteria share the property of having an unusual cell envelope structural organization close to Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to the inner membrane, the cell envelope is constituted of a thick arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan polymer covalently linked to an outer lipid layer, which is mainly composed of mycolic acids and probably organized in an outer membrane like structure. In some species, the cell is covered by a crystalline surface layer composed of a single protein species, which is anchored in the outer membrane like barrier. An increasing number of reports have led to a better understanding of the structure of the cell wall of Corynebacterium glutamicum. These works included the characterization of several cell wall proteins like S-layer protein and porins, genetic and biochemical characterization of mycolic acids biosynthesis, ultrastructural description of the cell envelope, and chemical analysis of its constituents. All these data address new aspects regarding cell wall permeability towards macromolecules and amino acids but also open new opportunities for biotechnology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bayan
- Unité de Génétique Moléculaire, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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Strych U, Penland RL, Jimenez M, Krause KL, Benedik MJ. Characterization of the alanine racemases from two mycobacteria. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001; 196:93-8. [PMID: 11267762 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10547.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
D-Alanine is a necessary precursor in the biosynthesis of the bacterial peptidoglycan. The naturally occurring L-alanine isomer is racemized to its D-form through the action of a class of enzymes called alanine racemases. These enzymes are ubiquitous among prokaryotes, and with very few exceptions are absent in eukaryotes, making them a logical target for the development of novel antibiotics. The alanine racemase gene from both Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. avium was amplified by PCR and cloned in Escherichia coli. Overexpression of the proteins in the E. coli BL21 system, both as native and as His-tagged recombinant products, has been achieved. The proteins have been purified to electrophoretic homogeneity and analyzed biochemically. A D-alanine requiring double knock-out mutant of E. coli (alr, dadX) was constructed and the cloned genes were able to complement its deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Strych
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5513, USA
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Yuan Y, Mead D, Schroeder BG, Zhu Y, Barry CE. The biosynthesis of mycolic acids in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Enzymatic methyl(ene) transfer to acyl carrier protein bound meromycolic acid in vitro. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:21282-90. [PMID: 9694888 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.33.21282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A closely related family of enzymes from Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been shown by heterologous expression to catalyze the modification of mycolic acids through the addition of a methyl (or methylene) group derived from S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM). Overproduction of all six of these enzymes in Escherichia coli and subsequent in vitro reactions with heat-inactivated acceptor fractions derived from Mycobacterium smegmatis in the presence of [methyl-3H]SAM demonstrated that the immediate substrate to which methyl group addition occurs was a family of very long-chain fatty acids. Inhibitors of methyl transfer, such as S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine and sinefungin, were shown to inhibit this reaction but had no effect on whole cells of either M. smegmatis or M. tuberculosis. Purified mycolic acids from M. tuberculosis were pyrolyzed, and the resulting meroaldehyde was oxidized and methylated to produce full-length methyl meromycolates. These esters were shown to comigrate with a fraction of the acceptor from the in vitro reactions, suggesting that methyl group addition occurs up to the level of the meromycolate. Protease and other treatments destroyed the activity of the acceptor fraction, which was also found to be extremely sensitive to basic pH. Antibody to the acyl carrier protein AcpM, which has recently been shown to be the carrier of full-length meromycolate produced by a unique type II fatty acid synthase system, inhibited the cell-free methyl(en)ation of these acids. These results suggest that mycolate modification reactions occur parallel with the synthesis of the AcpM-bound meromycolate chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Yuan
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Intracellular Parasites, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana 59840, USA
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Barry CE, Lee RE, Mdluli K, Sampson AE, Schroeder BG, Slayden RA, Yuan Y. Mycolic acids: structure, biosynthesis and physiological functions. Prog Lipid Res 1998; 37:143-79. [PMID: 9829124 DOI: 10.1016/s0163-7827(98)00008-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 388] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- C E Barry
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA.
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Abstract
Structural analysis has been successfully implemented recently to obtain valuable information on the mycobacterial cell wall components, many of which have formed the basis for biosynthesis and functional studies towards developing better drugs and possible vaccines. The highly complex and well organized structure unique to mycobacteria, represents the best target for novel antimycobacterial agents. Until recently, our knowledge of the enzymes responsible for the biogenesis of the cell wall components was almost negligible. The pathways are now being elucidated in several laboratories. Highlights of this review include significant advances in the structure and biochemistry of the major cell wall components and potential targets for generation of new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Chatterjee
- Department of Microbiology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA.
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