Temperature-induced changes in the coenzyme environment of D-amino acid oxidase revealed by the multiple decays of FAD fluorescence

Comparative studies on picosecond-resolved fluorescence of d-amino acid oxidases from human with one from porcine kidney. Photoinduced electron transfer from aromatic amino acids to the excited flavin

Fluorescence dynamics of human d-amino acid oxidase (hDAAO) and its five inhibitors have been studied in the picoseconds time domain, and compared with one in d-amino acid oxidase from porcine kidney (pkDAAO) reported. The fluorescence lifetimes were identified as 47 ps in the dimer, 235 ps in the monomer, which are compared with those of pkDAAO (45 ps-185 ps). The fluorescence lifetimes of the hDAAO did not change upon the inhibitor bindings despite of modifications in the absorption spectra. This indicates that the lifetimes of the complexes are too short to detect with the picosecond lifetime instrument. Numbers of the aromatic amino acids are similar between the both DAAOs. The fluorescence lifetimes of hDAAO were analysed with an ET theory using the crystal structure. The difference in the lifetimes of the dimer and monomer was well described in terms of difference in the electron affinity of the excited isoalloxazine (Iso*) between the two forms of the protein, though it is not known whether the structure of the monomer is different from the dimer. Three fastest ET donors were Tyr314, Trp52 and Tyr224 in the dimer, while Tyr314, Tyr224 and Tyr55 in the monomer, which are compared to those in pkDAAO, Tyr314, Tyr224 and Tyr228 in the dimer, and Tyr224, Tyr314 and Tyr228 in the monomer. The ET rate from Trp55 in hDAAO dimer was much faster compared to the rate in pkDAAO dimer. A rise component with negative pre-exponential factor was not observed in hDAAO, which are found in pkDAAO.

Two-Photon Microscopy (TPM) and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) of Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE) of Mice In Vivo

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a monolayer of epithelial cells located between the neural retina and the choroid, plays a significant role in the maintenance of retinal function. Its in vivo imaging is still technically challenging in human eye. With the mouse eye, there is a possibility to look into the RPE through the sclera using two-photon microscopy (TPM). TPM is a two photon-excited nonlinear fluorescence microscopy that enables the observation of deep tissues up to several hundred micrometers. Since the simultaneous absorption of two photons occurs only at the focal plane, spatial resolution of the TPM is quite high, such that pinhole as used in a confocal microscope is not necessary. TPM enables observation of autofluorescence at the cellular level, and thus may provide new insights into the fluorescent molecules in/around RPE cells.The combination of TPM with fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) may expand the breadth of information about cells and tissues. Fluorescence lifetime is a fluorophore-specific property, which is independent of fluorescence intensity and changes with the alteration of molecular environment. FLIM may have therefore the potentials to distinguish different fluorophores and to indicate the change in the environment of a fluorophore. Some energy metabolisms-related intracellular fluorophores, such as NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), show characteristic fluorescence lifetimes that shift under different molecular environments, and thus their fluorescence lifetime have been used to indicate cell energy metabolic states. These nonlabeling imaging methods offer us the opportunity to engage in the study of the RPE in vivo as well as in vitro both in morphological as well as metabolic aspects.

A shift in energy metabolism anticipates the onset of sarcopenia in rhesus monkeys

Age-associated skeletal muscle mass loss curtails quality of life and may contribute to defects in metabolic homeostasis in older persons. The onset of sarcopenia occurs in middle age in rhesus macaques although the trigger has yet to be identified. Here, we show that a shift in metabolism occurs in advance of the onset of sarcopenia in rhesus vastus lateralis. Multiphoton laser-scanning microscopy detects a shift in the kinetics of photon emission from autofluorescent metabolic cofactors NADH and FAD. Lifetime of both fluorophores is shortened at mid-age, and this is observed in both free and bound constituent pools. Levels of FAD and free NADH are increased and the NAD/NADH redox ratio is lower. Concomitant with this, expression of fiber-type myosin isoforms is altered resulting in a shift in fiber-type distribution, activity of cytochrome c oxidase involved in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation is significantly lower, and the subcellular organization of mitochondria in oxidative fibers is compromised. A regulatory switch involving the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1α directs metabolic fuel utilization and governs the expression of structural proteins. Age did not significantly impact total levels of PGC-1α; however, its subcellular localization was disrupted, suggesting that PGC-1α activities may be compromised. Consistent with this, intracellular lipid storage is altered and there is shift to larger lipid droplet size that likely reflects a decline in lipid turnover or a loss in efficiency of lipid metabolism. We suggest that changes in energy metabolism contribute directly to skeletal muscle aging in rhesus monkeys.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging of endogenous fluorophores in histopathology sections reveals differences between normal and tumor epithelium in carcinoma in situ of the breast

The classical examination of histology slides from a mouse model of breast cancer has been extended in this study to incorporate modern multiphoton excitation and photon-counting techniques. The advantage of such approaches is quantification of potential diagnostic parameters from the fluorescence emission signal, whereby the traditional descriptive staging process is complemented by measurements of fluorescence intensity, lifetime, and spectra. We explored whether the clinical "gold standard" of eosin and hematoxylin stained histology slides would provide optical biomarker signatures of diagnostic value. Alternatively, we examined unstained slides for changes in intensity and/or fluorescence lifetime of relevant endogenous fluorophores. Although eosin provided a strong emission signal and had distinct spectra and lifetime, we found that it was not useful as a fluorescent biological marker, particularly when combined with hematoxylin. Instead, we found that the properties of the fluorescence from the endogenous fluorophores NADH and FAD were indicative of the pathological state of the tissue. Comparing regions of carcinoma in situ to adjacent histologically normal regions, we found that tumor cells produced higher intensity and had a longer fluorescence lifetime. By imaging at 780 nm and 890 nm excitation, we were able to differentiate the fluorescence of FAD from NADH by separating the emission spectra. The shift to a longer lifetime in tumor cells was independent of the free or bound state of FAD and NADH, and of the excitation wavelength. Most forms of cancer have altered metabolism and redox ratios; here we present a method that has potential for early detection of these changes, which are preserved in fixed tissue samples such as classic histopathology slides.

Isomers in the excited state of electron-transferring flavoprotein from Megasphaera elsdenii: spectral resolution from the time-resolved fluorescence spectra

Electron-transferring flavoprotein (Holo-ETF) from Megasphaera elsdenii contains two FAD's, one of which easily dissociates to form Iso-ETF (contains one FAD). Time-resolved fluorescence of FAD in Iso-ETF, and Holo-ETF were measured at 5 degrees C and 25 degrees C. Wavelength-dependent fluorescence decays of the both ETF at 5 degrees C and 25 degrees C were analyzed to resolve them into two independent spectra. It was found that Iso-ETF displayed two spectra with lifetime of 0.605 ns (emission peak, 508 nm) and with lifetime of 1.70 ns (emission peak, 540 nm) at 5 degrees C, and with lifetime of 0.693 ns (emission peak, 508 nm) and with lifetime of 2.75 ns (emission peak, 540 nm) at 25 degrees C. Holo-ETF displayed two spectra with lifetime of 0.739 ns (emission peak, 508 nm) and with lifetime of 2.06 ns (emission peak, 545 nm) at 5 degrees C, and with lifetime of 0.711 ns (emission peak, 527 nm) and with lifetime of 3.08 ns (emission peak, 540 nm) at 25 degrees C. Thus fluorescence lifetimes of every spectrum increased upon elevating temperature. Emission peaks Iso-ETF did not change much upon elevating temperature. Activation enthalpy changes, activation entropy changes and activation Gibbs energy changes of quenching rates all displayed negative. Two emission species in the both ETF may be hydrogen-bonding isomers, because isoalloxazine ring of FAD contains four hydrogen acceptors and one donor.

Donor−Acceptor Distance-Dependence of Photoinduced Electron-Transfer Rate in Flavoproteins

Ultrafast fluorescence quenching of flavin in flavodoxin from Megasphaera elsdenii was investigated by means of a fluorescence up-conversion method. Fluorescence lifetimes of flavodoxin from M. elsdenii were estimated to be tau(1) approximately 165 fs (0.97%) and tau(2) approximately 10 ps (0.03%). Correlation of photoinduced electron-transfer rates (k(ET)) with averaged distances (D(av)) between isoalloxazine and nearby tryptophan or tyrosine was examined and obtained an empirical equation of ln k(ET) vs D(av) by means of a nonlinear least-squares method using reported data together with flavodoxin from M. elsdenii. The values of D(av) were calculated from X-ray structures of the flavoproteins. The ln k(ET) was approximately linear at D(av) shorter than 7 A. The model free empirical equation was expressed as ln k(ET) = 29.7 + (-0.327 D(av) + 2.84 x 10(-5))/(0.698 - D(av)(2)). We also analyzed the observed values of ln k(ET) with Marcus theory, but could not obtain reasonable results. Our analysis suggests that the average distance, rather than the shortest (edge to edge) distance or interplanar angles between the aromatics rings, is the key factor in the process of the photoinduced electron transfer in these flavoproteins.

Sensitivity of flavin fluorescence dynamics in neuronal nitric oxide synthase to cofactor-induced conformational changes and dimerization

The fluorescence intensity of the two flavin prosthetic groups, FMN and FAD, in neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) was found to decay highly nonexponentially, being best described by four fluorescence lifetimes. This excited state heterogeneity is the result of multiple flavin quenching sites which are due to several flavin microenvironments created mainly by stacking with aromatic amino acids. Investigating nNOS in the absence of one or more of Ca2+/calmodulin, tetrahydrobiopterin, and heme revealed an influence of these cofactors on the microenvironments of the flavin prosthetic groups. Similar effects on the flavin rotational dynamics were found by analyzing the fluorescence anisotropy decay of the holo and of the different apo forms of nNOS. Since the tetrahydrobiopterin and the heme are located in the N-terminal oxygenase domain of nNOS, their effect on the flavins in the C-terminal reductase domain is explained by a folding back of the reductase domain onto the oxygenase domain. Thereby a domain-domain interface is created containing the FAD, FMN, heme, and tetrahydrobiopterin prosthetic groups which allows for efficient electron transfer during catalysis. The heme group, which is known to be essential for homodimerization of nNOS, was also found to be essential for the formation of the domain-domain interface.