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Tacrine Derivatives in Neurological Disorders: Focus on Molecular Mechanisms and Neurotherapeutic Potential. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:7252882. [PMID: 36035218 PMCID: PMC9410840 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7252882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Tacrine is a drug used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease as a cognitive enhancer and inhibitor of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). However, its clinical application has been restricted due to its poor therapeutic efficacy and high prevalence of detrimental effects. An attempt was made to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie tacrine and its analogues influence over neurotherapeutic activity by focusing on modulation of neurogenesis, neuroinflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and regulatory role in gene and protein expression, energy metabolism, Ca2+ homeostasis modulation, and osmotic regulation. Regardless of this, analogues of tacrine are considered as a model inhibitor of cholinesterase in the therapy of Alzheimer's disease. The variety both in structural make-up and biological functions of these substances is the main appeal for researchers' interest in them. A new paradigm for treating neurological diseases is presented in this review, which includes treatment strategies for Alzheimer's disease, as well as other neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease and the synthesis and biological properties of newly identified versatile tacrine analogues and hybrids. We have also shown that these analogues may have therapeutic promise in the treatment of neurological diseases in a variety of experimental systems.
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Liu DD, Ren Z, Yang G, Zhao QR, Mei YA. Melatonin protects rat cerebellar granule cells against electromagnetic field-induced increases in Na(+) currents through intracellular Ca(2+) release. J Cell Mol Med 2014; 18:1060-70. [PMID: 24548607 PMCID: PMC4508145 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Although melatonin (MT) has been reported to protect cells against oxidative damage induced by electromagnetic radiation, few reports have addressed whether there are other protective mechanisms. Here, we investigated the effects of MT on extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field (ELF-EMF)-induced Nav activity in rat cerebellar granule cells (GCs). Exposing cerebellar GCs to ELF-EMF for 60 min. significantly increased the Nav current (INa ) densities by 62.5%. MT (5 μM) inhibited the ELF-EMF-induced INa increase. This inhibitory effect of MT is mimicked by an MT2 receptor agonist and was eliminated by an MT2 receptor antagonist. The Nav channel steady-state activation curve was significantly shifted towards hyperpolarization by ELF-EMF stimulation but remained unchanged by MT in cerebellar GC that were either exposed or not exposed to ELF-EMF. ELF-EMF exposure significantly increased the intracellular levels of phosphorylated PKA in cerebellar GCs, and both MT and IIK-7 did not reduce the ELF-EMF-induced increase in phosphorylated PKA. The inhibitory effects of MT on ELF-EMF-induced Nav activity was greatly reduced by the calmodulin inhibitor KN93. Calcium imaging showed that MT did not increase the basal intracellular Ca(2+) level, but it significantly elevated the intracellular Ca(2+) level evoked by the high K(+) stimulation in cerebellar GC that were either exposed or not exposed to ELF-EMF. In the presence of ruthenium red, a ryanodine-sensitive receptor blocker, the MT-induced increase in intracellular calcium levels was reduced. Our data show for the first time that MT protects against neuronal INa that result from ELF-EMF exposure through Ca(2+) influx-induced Ca(2+) release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Dong Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Inada C, Thi Le X, Tsuneyama K, Fujiwara H, Miyata T, Matsumoto K. Endogenous acetylcholine rescues NMDA-induced long-lasting hippocampal cell damage via stimulation of muscarinic M1 receptors: Elucidation using organic hippocampal slice cultures. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 699:150-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.11.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Guo L, Suarez AI, Braden MR, Gerdes JM, Thompson CM. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by chromophore-linked fluorophosphonates. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 20:1194-7. [PMID: 20034789 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Revised: 11/28/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fluorophosphonate (FP) head groups were tethered to a variety of chromophores (C) via a triazole group and tested as FPC inhibitors of recombinant mouse (rMoAChE) and electric eel (EEAChE) acetylcholinesterase. The inhibitors showed bimolecular inhibition constants (k(i)) ranging from 0.3 x 10(5)M(-1)min(-1) to 10.4 x 10(5)M(-1)min(-1). When tested against rMoAChE, the dansyl FPC was 12.5-fold more potent than the corresponding inhibitor bearing a Texas Red as chromophore, whereas the Lissamine and dabsyl chromophores led to better anti-EEAChE inhibitors. Most inhibitors were equal or better inhibitors of rMoAChE than EEAChE. 3-Azidopropyl fluorophosphonate, which served as one of the FP head groups, showed excellent inhibitory potency against both AChE's ( congruent with 1 x 10(7)M(-1)min(-1)) indicating, in general, that addition of the chromophore reduced the overall anti-AChE activity. Covalent attachment of the dabsyl-FPC analog to rMoAChE was demonstrated using size exclusion chromatography and spectroscopic analysis, and visualized using molecular modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilu Guo
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States
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Krustev A, Sirakov V, Turiiski V, Getova D, Velkova K, Prissadova N. Delayed evacuatory function due to specific smooth muscle reactivity in the gastrointestinal tracts of tacrine-treated rats. Pharmacology 2007; 81:50-6. [PMID: 17827979 DOI: 10.1159/000107969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2007] [Accepted: 06/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Most of the side effects induced by tacrine are associated with the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The aim of the study was to analyze the nature of radiographically registered, tacrine-induced changes in evacuatory function, as well as to find a possible correlation with the immediate in vitro action of the drug on smooth muscles from the GI tracts of rats. The tacrine dose we used reliably delayed GI passage: contrast matter was not fully evacuated, predominantly from the stomach and cecum. The delay resulted from changes in tone and peristaltic activity, specific for the various regions of the tract. These changes were associated with a superposing of the responses due to the anticholinesterase and noncholinergic action of tacrine.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Krustev
- Department of Biophysics, Medical University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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Krustev AD, Argirova MD, Getova DP, Turiiski VI, Prissadova NA. Calcium-independent tacrine-induced relaxation of rat gastric corpus smooth muscles. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2006; 84:1133-8. [PMID: 17218977 DOI: 10.1139/y06-059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tacrine, a non-competitive reversible acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholineserase inhibitor, caused a concentration-dependent tonic contraction of gastric smooth muscle preparations in the concentration range 1 × 10−7 mol/L – 1 × 10−5 mol/L, whereas concentrations higher than 2 × 10−5 mol/L induced a biphasic effect; a short-time contraction was followed by a prolonged relaxation. To shed some light on the mechanism underlying this untypical relaxation, the amplitude of mechanical reactions caused by tacrine were compared with those of tacrine in the presence of atropine, ipratropium, metrifonate, TTX, nifedipine, D-600, caffeine, apamin, and charybdotoxin. The results obtained revealed that the relaxation was neither cholinergic in nature, nor mediated by the influence of the drug on intramural neuronal structures. It was not influenced by processes inducing changes in cytosolic Ca2+ levels. This assumption was confirmed by experiments with permeabilized muscle preparations that were pre-contracted in a solution with pCa 5.5. Tacrine relaxed the smooth muscles in spite of the constant intracellular Ca2+ concentration resulting from the permeabilization. These findings argue that tacrine at concentrations higher than 2 × 10−5 mol/L has a desensitizing effect on the contractile apparatus of gastric corpus smooth muscle preparations towards Ca2+.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atanas D Krustev
- Department of Physics and Biophysics, Medical University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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Luo JL, Zhang J, Guan BC, Pang YP, Han YF, Li ZW. Inhibition by bis(7)-tacrine of 5-HT-activated current in rat TG neurons. Neuroreport 2004; 15:1335-8. [PMID: 15167561 DOI: 10.1097/01.wnr.0000127075.51445.3e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Whole-cell recordings were performed on rat trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons as a modeling experiment to investigate the effect of bis (7)-tacrine, a potential anti-Alzheimer's disease (AD) drug, on 5-HT-induced current (I5-HT). Extracellular 5-HT activated a concentration-dependent inward current that was blocked by ICS 205930. Co-application of bis(7)-tacrine inhibited I5-HT markedly with IC50 at 2 x 10 M. Bis(7)-tacrine shifted the concentration-response curve for I5-HT rightwards with its maximum response unchanged and EC50 increased, suggesting that this inhibition was competitive in nature. Intracellular dialysis of GDP-beta-S did not block bis(7)-tacrine inhibition of I5-HT, which excluded the involvement of G-protein mediation. These results may offer possible modality to understanding the anti-AD mechanism of bis(7)-tacrine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Lie Luo
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, PR China
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Prince RJ, Pennington RA, Sine SM. Mechanism of tacrine block at adult human muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J Gen Physiol 2002; 120:369-93. [PMID: 12198092 PMCID: PMC2229521 DOI: 10.1085/jgp.20028583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We used single-channel kinetic analysis to study the inhibitory effects of tacrine on human adult nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) transiently expressed in HEK 293 cells. Single channel recording from cell-attached patches revealed concentration- and voltage-dependent decreases in mean channel open probability produced by tacrine (IC(50) 4.6 microM at -70 mV, 1.6 microM at -150 mV). Two main effects of tacrine were apparent in the open- and closed-time distributions. First, the mean channel open time decreased with increasing tacrine concentration in a voltage-dependent manner, strongly suggesting that tacrine acts as an open-channel blocker. Second, tacrine produced a new class of closings whose duration increased with increasing tacrine concentration. Concentration dependence of closed-times is not predicted by sequential models of channel block, suggesting that tacrine blocks the nAChR by an unusual mechanism. To probe tacrine's mechanism of action we fitted a series of kinetic models to our data using maximum likelihood techniques. Models incorporating two tacrine binding sites in the open receptor channel gave dramatically improved fits to our data compared with the classic sequential model, which contains one site. Improved fits relative to the sequential model were also obtained with schemes incorporating a binding site in the closed channel, but only if it is assumed that the channel cannot gate with tacrine bound. Overall, the best description of our data was obtained with a model that combined two binding sites in the open channel with a single site in the closed state of the receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Prince
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom.
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López-Coviella I, Berse B, Thies RS, Blusztajn JK. Upregulation of acetylcholine synthesis by bone morphogenetic protein 9 in a murine septal cell line. JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY, PARIS 2002; 96:53-9. [PMID: 11755783 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-4257(01)00080-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP-9) induces the expression of choline acetyltransferase and the vesicular acetylcholine (ACh) transporter, and upregulates ACh synthesis in cultured primary neurons from embryonic mouse septum [I. López-Coviella, B. Berse, R. Krauss, R.S. Thies, J.K. Blusztajn, Induction and maintenance of the neuronal cholinergic phenotype in the central nervous system by BMP-9. Science 289 (2000) 313-316]. In the present studies we investigated the effects of BMP-9 on ACh synthesis in the cholinergic mouse SN56T17 septal cell line. BMP-9 increased ACh synthesis in these cells up to 2.5-fold in a time- and dose-dependent, saturable manner. The maximal effect of BMP-9 was observed after a 3-day treatment and the median effective concentration of BMP-9 was 0.5 ng/ml. These data show that SN56T17 cells are a useful model for studies of the effects of BMPs on the cholinergic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio López-Coviella
- Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine, 85 East Newton Street, Room M1009, Boston, MA02118, USA
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Kushmerick C, Romano-Silva MA, Gomez MV, Prado MA. Changes in Ca(2+) channel expression upon differentiation of SN56 cholinergic cells. Brain Res 2001; 916:199-210. [PMID: 11597607 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02898-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The SN56 cell line, a fusion of septal neurons and neuroblastoma cells, has been used as a model for central cholinergic neurons. These cells show increased expression of cholinergic neurochemical features upon differentiation, but little is known about how differentiation affects their electrophysiological properties. We examined the changes in Ca(2+) channel expression that occur as these cells undergo morphological differentiation in response to serum withdrawal and exposure to dibutyryl-cAMP. Undifferentiated cells expressed a T-type current with biophysical and pharmacological properties similar, although not identical, to those reported for the current generated by the alpha(1H) (CaV3.2) Ca(2+) channel subunit. Differentiated cells expressed, in addition to this T-type current, high voltage activated currents which were inhibited 38% by the L-type channel antagonist nifedipine (5 microM), 37% by the N-type channel antagonist omega-conotoxin-GVIA (1 microM), and 15% by the P/Q-type channel antagonist omega-agatoxin-IVA (200 nM). Current resistant to these inhibitors accounted for 15% of the high voltage activated current in differentiated SN56 cells. Our data demonstrate that differentiation increases the expression of neuronal type voltage gated Ca(2+) channels in this cell line, and that the channels expressed are comparable to those reported for native basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. This cell line should thus provide a useful model system to study the relationship between calcium currents and cholinergic function and dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Kushmerick
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antonio Carlos 6627, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Ros E, Aleu J, Gomez de Aranda I, Cantí C, Pang YP, Marsal J, Solsona C. Effects of bis(7)-tacrine on spontaneous synaptic activity and on the nicotinic ACh receptor of Torpedo electric organ. J Neurophysiol 2001; 86:183-9. [PMID: 11431500 DOI: 10.1152/jn.2001.86.1.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bis(7)-tacrine is a potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor in which two tacrine molecules are linked by a heptylene chain. We tested the effects of bis(7)-tacrine on the spontaneous synaptic activity. Miniature endplate potentials (MEPPs) were recorded extracellularly on slices of electric organ of Torpedo marmorata. Bis(7)-tacrine, at a concentration of 100 nM, increased the magnitudes that describe MEPPs: amplitude, area, rise time, rate of rise, and half-width. We also tested the effect of bis(7)-tacrine on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by analyzing the currents elicited by acetylcholine (100 microM) in Torpedo electric organ membranes transplanted in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Bis(7)-tacrine inhibited the acetylcholine-induced currents in a reversible manner (IC(50) = 162 nM). The inhibition of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors was not voltage dependent, and bis(7)-tacrine increased the desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The Hill coefficient for bis(7)-tacrine was -0.72 +/- 0.02, indicating that bis(7)-tacrine binds to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in a molecular ratio of 1:1, but does not affect the binding of alpha-bungarotoxin with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. In conclusion, bis(7)-tacrine greatly increases the spontaneous quantal release from peripheral cholinergic terminals at a much lower concentration than tacrine. Bis(7)-tacrine also blocks acetylcholine-induced currents of Torpedo electric organ, although the mechanism is different from that of tacrine: bis(7)-tacrine enhances desensitization, whereas tacrine reduces it.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ros
- Laboratori de Neurobiologia Cellular i Molecular, Departament de Biologia Cellular i Anatomia Patològica, Facultat de Medicina, Hospital de Bellvitge, Universitat de Barcelona, E-08907 L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
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