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Abstract
Modern trauma management has recognized the importance of using conservative fluid resuscitation regimes in order to prevent complications from fluid overload arising. Hypertonic/hyperoncotic fluids appear to provide an ideal means of facilitating this, requiring only small volumes to rapidly elevate blood pressure. Hypertonic saline dextran (HSD) was introduced in 1985 but its take up has been slow, a large part of this has been due to the lack of human trials and concerns about complications. The current evidence has been reviewed and it is clear that HSD is an efficient means of correcting hypotension, doing so mainly by the mobilizing endogenous water. It is becoming apparent that early administration has the potential to modulate the inflammatory cascade in patients at risk of developing adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiorgan failure. This is reflected in the handful of human trials that show a trend towards increased survival (particularly for head injuries) and a possible reduction in ARDS. The side effect profile appears to be good, even in the presence of dehydration or penetrating trauma. Published human trials have methodological problems and lack of power of study this has led to a reliance on animal studies. Clearly there is great potential, but before large-scale prehospital usage can be justified further well-conducted randomized human trials are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- AM Perera
- University Hospital (Selly Oak) Birmingham, Birmingham, UK,
| | - KM Porter
- University Hospital (Selly Oak) Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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2
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Open questions concerning taurine with emphasis on the brain. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 803:409-13. [PMID: 25833513 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15126-7_31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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3
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Abstract
There is a wealth of preclinical data suggesting potential benefit from the administration of hypertonic solutions after severe injury with hypovolemic shock, including improved tissue perfusion, improved flow through the microcirculation, and modulation of the inflammatory response, which may mitigate subsequent organ failure. However, despite these potential advantages, clinical trials of hypertonic resuscitation early after injury have failed to demonstrate significant benefit for resuscitation of hemorrhagic shock, and although there is no difference in overall mortality, there appears to be a trend toward earlier mortality among those receiving hypertonic fluids. Likewise, for TBI there are data suggesting that hypertonic fluids should support cerebral perfusion and mitigate intracranial hypertension, yet the clinical trials of early administration to these patients have also failed to show benefit. Further study is warranted in this patient population, as a longer period of hypertonicity may be required to show a clinical effect. Assessment of long-term neurologic outcome in this patient population remains the gold standard in determining benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen M Bulger
- Department of Surgery, Harborview Medical Center, University of Washington, Box 359796, 325 9th Avenue, Seattle, WA 98104, USA.
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5
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Elliott MB, Jallo JJ, Barbe MF, Tuma RF. Hypertonic saline attenuates tissue loss and astrocyte hypertrophy in a model of traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2009; 1305:183-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.09.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2009] [Revised: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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6
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Haskew-Layton RE, Rudkouskaya A, Jin Y, Feustel PJ, Kimelberg HK, Mongin AA. Two distinct modes of hypoosmotic medium-induced release of excitatory amino acids and taurine in the rat brain in vivo. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3543. [PMID: 18958155 PMCID: PMC2568819 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2008] [Accepted: 10/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of physiological and pathological factors induce cellular swelling in the brain. Changes in cell volume activate several types of ion channels, which mediate the release of inorganic and organic osmolytes and allow for compensatory cell volume decrease. Volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC) are thought to be responsible for the release of some of organic osmolytes, including the excitatory neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartate. In the present study, we compared the in vivo properties of the swelling-activated release of glutamate, aspartate, and another major brain osmolyte taurine. Cell swelling was induced by perfusion of hypoosmotic (low [NaCl]) medium via a microdialysis probe placed in the rat cortex. The hypoosmotic medium produced several-fold increases in the extracellular levels of glutamate, aspartate and taurine. However, the release of the excitatory amino acids differed from the release of taurine in several respects including: (i) kinetic properties, (ii) sensitivity to isoosmotic changes in [NaCl], and (iii) sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide, which is known to modulate VRAC. Consistent with the involvement of VRAC, hypoosmotic medium-induced release of the excitatory amino acids was inhibited by the anion channel blocker DNDS, but not by the glutamate transporter inhibitor TBOA or Cd2+, which inhibits exocytosis. In order to elucidate the mechanisms contributing to taurine release, we studied its release properties in cultured astrocytes and cortical synaptosomes. Similarities between the results obtained in vivo and in synaptosomes suggest that the swelling-activated release of taurine in vivo may be of neuronal origin. Taken together, our findings indicate that different transport mechanisms and/or distinct cellular sources mediate hypoosmotic medium-induced release of the excitatory amino acids and taurine in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée E. Haskew-Layton
- Center of Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
- Burke Medical Research Institute of Cornell University, White Plains, New York, United States of America
| | - Alena Rudkouskaya
- Center of Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Yiqiang Jin
- Ordway Research Institute, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Feustel
- Center of Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | | | - Alexander A. Mongin
- Center of Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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7
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Abstract
This article highlights the experimental and clinical data, controversies and postulated mechanisms surrounding osmotherapy with hypertonic saline (HS) solutions in the neurocritical care arena and builds on previous reviews on the subject. Special attention is focused on HS therapy on commonly encountered clinical paradigms of acute brain injury including traumatic brain injury (TBI), post-operative "retraction edema", intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), tumor-associated cerebral edema, and ischemia associated with ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy C Ziai
- Neurosciences Critical Care Division, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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8
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Wu Y, Wang W, Richerson GB. The Transmembrane Sodium Gradient Influences Ambient GABA Concentration by Altering the Equilibrium of GABA Transporters. J Neurophysiol 2006; 96:2425-36. [PMID: 16870837 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00545.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tonic inhibition is widely believed to be caused solely by “spillover” of GABA that escapes the synaptic cleft and activates extrasynaptic GABAA receptors. However, an exclusively vesicular source is not consistent with the observation that tonic inhibition can still occur after blocking vesicular release. Here, we made patch-clamp recordings from neurons in rat hippocampal cultures and measured the tonic current that was blocked by bicuculline or gabazine. During perforated patch recordings, the tonic GABA current was decreased by the GAT1 antagonist SKF-89976a. Zero calcium solution did not change the amount of tonic current, despite a large reduction in vesicular GABA release. Perturbations that would be expected to alter the transmembrane sodium gradient influenced the tonic current. For example, in zero calcium Ringer, TTX (which can decrease cytosolic [Na+]) reduced tonic current, whereas veratridine (which can increase cytosolic [Na+]) increased tonic current. Likewise, removal of extracellular sodium led to a large increase in tonic current. The increases in tonic current induced by veratridine and sodium removal were completely blocked by SKF89976a. When these experiments were repeated in hippocampal slices, similar results were obtained except that a GAT1- and GAT3-independent nonvesicular source(s) of GABA was found to contribute to the tonic current. We conclude that multiple sources can contribute to ambient GABA, including spillover and GAT1 reversal. The source of GABA release may be conceptually less important in determining the amount of tonic inhibition than the factors that control the equilibrium of GABA transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanming Wu
- Department of Neurology, LCI-712B, Yale University School of Medicine, 15 York St., PO 208018, New Haven, CT 06520-8018, USA
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Ananthalakshmi KVV, Edafiogho IO, Kombian SB. Concentration-dependent effects of anticonvulsant enaminone methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate on neuronal excitability in vitro. Neuroscience 2006; 141:345-56. [PMID: 16650601 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2005] [Revised: 03/13/2006] [Accepted: 03/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Enaminones are a novel group of compounds some of which possess anticonvulsant activity in in vivo animal models of seizures. We recently reported that some enaminones, including methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate, depress glutamate-mediated excitatory synaptic transmission and that this may contribute to their anticonvulsant activity [Kombian SB, Edafiogho IO, Ananthalakshmi KVV (2005) Anticonvulsant enaminones depress excitatory synaptic transmission in the rat brain by enhancing extracellular GABA levels. Br J Pharmacol 145:945-953]. Here we studied the effects of methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate, on the excitability of male rat (Sprague-Dawley) nucleus accumbens and hippocampal cells in vitro using whole-cell patch clamp recording techniques. At low, therapeutically relevant concentrations (0.3-10 microM), methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate reversibly suppressed action potential firing rate in a concentration-dependent manner. This action potential suppression was present when GABA(A), GABA(B) and glutamate receptors were blocked with their antagonists. Furthermore, methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate suppressed tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium currents in these cells. At concentrations >/=100 microM, it induced inward currents and increased action potential firing frequency. The inward currents were without changes in input resistance and did not reverse polarity between -120 and -40 mV. These currents were independent of extracellular potassium, but were absent when extracellular sodium was replaced by choline and finally, were occluded by pretreatment with ouabain (200 microM). We conclude that methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate directly inhibits action potential firing at therapeutically relevant concentrations by suppressing tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium currents, while inducing an ouabain-sensitive current at high concentrations to excite neurons. These two actions of methyl 4-(4'-bromophenyl)aminocyclohex-3-en-6-methyl-2-oxo-1-oate on neuronal excitability would have therapeutic implications in future clinical use of enaminones as anticonvulsants in seizure disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V V Ananthalakshmi
- Department of Applied Therapeutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 24923, Safat 13110, Kuwait
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Hoffman-Kuczynski B, Reo NV. Administration of Myo-inositol Plus Ethanolamine Elevates Phosphatidylethanolamine Plasmalogen in the Rat Cerebellum. Neurochem Res 2005; 30:47-60. [PMID: 15756932 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-004-9685-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Plasmalogens are ether-linked phospholipids highly abundant in nervous tissue. Previously we demonstrated that acute administration of myo-inositol (myo-Ins) + [2-(13)C] ethanolamine ([2-(13)C]Etn) significantly elevated phosphatidylethanolamine plasmalogen (PlsEtn) in rat whole brain. Current experiments investigated the effects of acute myo-Ins+[2-(13)C]Etn administration on [PlsEtn] and the biosynthesis of new Etn lipids using NMR spectroscopy in rat cerebral cortex, hippocampus, brainstem, midbrain and cerebellum. Treated rats received a single dose of myo-Ins + [2-(13)C]Etn and controls received saline rather than myoIns. Data reveal that the cerebellum is the brain region most affected by treatment, which resulted in a 22% increase in [PlsEtn] and 89% increase in newly synthesized Etn lipids relative to controls (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the cerebellar PlsEtn/phosphatidylethanolamine ratio and molar percentage of PlsEtn were significantly elevated by 12% and 8%, respectively (P < 0.05). These data suggest that myo-Ins influences Etn lipid metabolism in brain, particularly in the cerebellum where there is a stimulation in the biosynthesis of new Etn lipids with a preference towards PlsEtn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Hoffman-Kuczynski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wright State University School of Medicine, WSU Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, Cox Institute, Dayton, Ohio 45429, USA
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Kennedy CS, Moffatt M. Acute traumatic brain injury in children: Exploring the cutting edge in understanding, therapy, and research. CLINICAL PEDIATRIC EMERGENCY MEDICINE 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cpem.2004.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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12
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Tetsuka K, Takanaga H, Ohtsuki S, Hosoya KI, Terasaki T. The l-isomer-selective transport of aspartic acid is mediated by ASCT2 at the blood-brain barrier. J Neurochem 2004; 87:891-901. [PMID: 14622120 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.02063.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aspartic acid (Asp) undergoes l-isomer-selective efflux transport across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This transport system appears to play an important role in regulating l- and d-Asp levels in the brain. The purpose of this study was to identify the responsible transporters and elucidate the mechanism for l-isomer-selective Asp transport at the BBB. The l-isomer-selective uptake of Asp by conditionally immortalized mouse brain capillary endothelial cells used as an in vitro model of the BBB took place in an Na+- and pH-dependent manner. This process was inhibited by system ASC substrates such as l-alanine and l-serine, suggesting that system ASC transporters, ASCT1 and ASCT2, are involved in the l-isomer selective transport. Indeed, l-Asp uptake by oocytes injected with either ASCT1 or ASCT2 cRNA took place in a similar manner to that in cultured BBB cells, whereas no significant d-Asp uptake occurred. Although both ASCT1 and ASCT2 mRNA were expressed in the cultured BBB cells, the expression of ASCT2 mRNA was 6.7-fold greater than that of ASCT1. Moreover, immunohistochemical analysis suggests that ASCT2 is localized at the abluminal side of the mouse BBB. These results suggest that ASCT2 plays a key role in l-isomer-selective Asp efflux transport at the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Tetsuka
- Department of Molecular Biopharmacy and Genetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
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Ritz MF, Schmidt P, Mendelowitsch A. 17beta-estradiol effect on the extracellular concentration of amino acids in the glutamate excitotoxicity model in the rat. Neurochem Res 2002; 27:1677-83. [PMID: 12515322 DOI: 10.1023/a:1021695213099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen has demonstrated a neuroprotective role in a rat model of glutamate excitotoxicity and other neurodegenerative disorders. We studied the effect of 17beta-estradiol on glutamate-induced increases in amino acids levels (aspartate, histidine, taurine and GABA) in the rat cortex. Local perfusion of glutamate produced a transient increase of aspartate, histidine, taurine and GABA in the extracellular fluid. Pretreatment with 17beta-estradiol significantly reduced the increases of taurine and moderately attenuated that of histidine, whereas aspartate and GABA releases were not modified. The effect of 17beta-estradiol on histidine release was reversed by the antiestrogen tamoxifen, suggesting a receptor-dependent mechanism. Good correlations between the volumes of the glutamate-induced lesions and the extracellular concentrations of taurine and aspartate were observed. These findings suggest that the attenuation of the glutamate-induced release of taurine by 17beta-estradiol may participate in the neuroprotective effects of 17beta-estradiol and that increased levels of aspartate and taurine are markers for the severity of the glutamate-induced cortical lesions.
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Saltarini M, Massarutti D, Baldassarre M, Nardi G, De Colle C, Fabris G. Determination of cerebral water content by magnetic resonance imaging after small volume infusion of 18% hypertonic saline solution in a patient with refractory intracranial hypertension. Eur J Emerg Med 2002; 9:262-5. [PMID: 12394625 DOI: 10.1097/00063110-200209000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Hypertonic saline solution (HSS) has been investigated in the treatment of intracranial hypertension (ICH) in a limited number of studies, usually after failure of conventional treatment. HSS, used in concentrations that vary from 3% to 23.4%, seems to be effective in reducing refractory ICH and to be devoid of adverse effects. We treated a patient with refractory ICH with a small-volume infusion of 18% HSS, and performed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) before and after HSS infusion. MRI showed a marked reduction in cerebral water content 1 h after the infusion. To our knowledge, this is the first MRI study in a patient with brain injury to evaluate the effect of HSS on brain water content. Further studies are necessary to test HSS efficacy and to identify, through MRI or computed tomography (CT) scan imaging, a subgroup of patients with brain injury who would be best treated with HSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saltarini
- First Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, Azienda Ospedaliera Santa Maria della Misericordia, Pizzalle Santa Maria della Misericorda, Udine, Italy
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Takanaga H, Tokuda N, Ohtsuki S, Hosoya KI, Terasaki T. ATA2 is predominantly expressed as system A at the blood-brain barrier and acts as brain-to-blood efflux transport for L-proline. Mol Pharmacol 2002; 61:1289-96. [PMID: 12021389 DOI: 10.1124/mol.61.6.1289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Although system A is present at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the physiological roles of system A have not been clarified. The efflux transport of the substrates of system A, such as L-proline (L-Pro), glycine (Gly), and alpha-methylaminoisobutyric acid (MeAIB), across the BBB was investigated using the in vivo Brain Efflux Index method. Over a period of 40 min, L-[(3)H]Pro and [(3)H]Gly underwent efflux from the brain, whereas [(3)H]MeAIB did not. The efflux of L-[(3)H]Pro was inhibited by the presence of unlabeled L-Pro and MeAIB, suggesting that carrier-mediated efflux transport of L-Pro across the BBB is involved in system A. L-[(3)H]Pro uptake by TR-BBB cells, used as an in vitro BBB model, was Na(+)-dependent with high-affinity (K(m1) = 425 microM) and low-affinity (K(m2) = 10.8 mM) saturable processes. The manner of inhibition of L-[(3)H]Pro uptake for amino acids was consistent with system A. Although GlnT, ATA2, and ATA3 mRNA were all expressed in TR-BBB cells, ATA2 mRNA was predominant. Under hypertonic conditions, ATA2 mRNA in TR-BBB cells was induced by up to 373%, and it activated [(3)H]MeAIB uptake. In light of these observations, our results indicate that L-Pro and Gly are transported from the brain across the BBB, whereas MeAIB is retained in the brain. System A is involved in efflux transport for L-Pro at the BBB. The predominantly expressed ATA2 mRNA at the BBB may play a role in maintaining the concentration of small neutral amino acids and cerebral osmotic pressure in the brain under pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Takanaga
- Department of Molecular Biopharmacy and Genetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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Zielińska M, Hilgier W, Borkowska HD, Oja SS, Saransaari P, Albrecht J. Lubeluzole attenuates K(+)-evoked extracellular accumulation of taurine in the striatum of healthy rats and rats with hepatic failure. Brain Res 2001; 904:173-6. [PMID: 11516427 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02492-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lubeluzole is a newly designed neuroprotectant which has proved effective in the treatment of experimental stroke in rats, mainly by inhibition of the glutamate-activated NO pathway, but also by counteracting osmotic stress by a mechanism associated with the release of the osmotically active amino acid taurine (Tau). Here we show that lubeluzole administered i.p. decreases by 25% the high (50 mM) K+-evoked accumulation of Tau in striatal microdialysates of healthy rats and by 34% in rats with thioacetamide-induced hepatic failure, where the increased extracellular accumulation of Tau signifies ongoing hepatic encephalopathy. Lubeluzole does not affect the nonstimulated accumulation of Tau in either group of rats. The results indicate that lubeluzole may be effective in ameliorating ionic or osmotic stress in a range of pathological conditions involving the rise of extracellular K+, and also in decreasing the vulnerability to stress in rats with hepatic failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Zielińska
- Department of Neurotoxicology, Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawiñskiego St. 5, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
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Doyle JA, Davis DP, Hoyt DB. The use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of traumatic brain injury. THE JOURNAL OF TRAUMA 2001; 50:367-83. [PMID: 11242309 DOI: 10.1097/00005373-200102000-00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J A Doyle
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California at San Diego, 200 West Arbor Drive, San Diego, CA 92103-8676, USA
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