Subcellular sites of calcium accumulation and relationships with conidiation in Penicillium cyclopium

Calcium-induced conidiation in Penicillium cyclopium: calcium triggers cytosolic alkalinization at the hyphal tip

Addition of Ca2+ (1 to 10 mM) to submerged cultures of Penicillium cyclopium induces conidiation. Ca2+ induced an increase in cytosolic pH from approximately 7.00 to > 7.60 in less than 10 min, as determined with the fluorescent pH probe fluorescein. Measurement of the H(+)-ATPase activity in total membrane fractions did not show any stable activation in vivo as a result of Ca2+ treatment. By fluorescence ratio imaging microscopy, it was observed that vegetative hyphae exhibit a tip-to-base pH gradient, with the tip being more acidic. Ca2+ caused this gradient to dissipate within 10 min. The effect of several agents that are supposed to cause internal acidification, by different means, on conidiation was tested. Concentrations of these agents that did not significantly affect growth but inhibited Ca(2+)-induced conidiation also prevented the intracellular alkalinization observed after exposure to the cation. Calcium channel blockers (lanthanum, cobalt, verapamil, and nifedipine) were not able to inhibit Ca(2+)-induced conidiation, although their effect on calcium uptake was not evaluated. However, the combined results point towards externally bound Ca2+ as the primary agent of conidiation induction, causing changes in plasma membrane function which disrupt the pH gradient observed during apical growth.

Properties of mitochondria from Penicillium cyclopium and their response to calcium and other divalent cations

The respiratory properties of isolated mitochondria from P. cyclopium were studied with particular attention to their response to calcium ions. The results obtained indicate concentration dependent stimulation of NADH oxidation by calcium ions. Similar effects could also be obtained with other divalent cations.

Oxidation of carbon sources via the tricarboxylic acid cycle during calcium-induced conidiation of Penicillium notatum

The TCA cycle was examined during Ca2+-induced conidiation in Penicillium notatum over the 12-h period after addition of Ca2+ to vegetative cultures. Conidiation was independent of Ca2+ when certain intermediates and derivatives of the TCA cycle served as sole carbon sources. Arsenite and malonate augmented the effect of Ca2+ on conidiation but did not substitute for it. Mitochondria from vegetative cells had low rates of oxidation of TCA cycle intermediates and, with the exception of pyruvate, aconitate and glutamate, these were poorly linked to phosphorylation processes. Calcium ions affected mitochondrial function causing reduced oxidation of oxoglutarate, elimination of pyruvate oxidation and a decline in respiratory control of these substrates with increased oxidation of NADH and NADPH. Radiorespirometric studies and enzyme searches revealed a complete but weakly oxidative TCA cycle in vegetative cells. In Ca2+-induced cells oxoglutarate dehydrogenase activity was deleted within 6.5 h of Ca2+ addition and this was accompanied by establishment of an 'incomplete Krebs cycle'. Calcium-induced conidiation was associated with increased capacity for acetate and glutamate metabolism involving an activated glyoxylate shunt which may be related to enhanced biosynthetic demand. The metabolic basis of the Ca2+ effect on conidiation is discussed in connection with previous findings.

Pathways of glucose catabolism and the origin and metabolism of pyruvate during calcium-induced conidiation of Penicillium notatum

Experiments examined the metabolic basis of Ca2+-induced conidiation during the 12-h period following the addition of Ca2+ to 40-h vegetative cultures of Penicillium notatum. Vegetative mycelium had enzymic capacity for three routes of glucose catabolism viz. the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP), pentose phosphate (PP) and the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) sequences. Inhibitors of EMP enzymes restricted vegetative growth more than that associated with conidiation whilst arsenate augmented the limited capacity of lower levels of Ca2+ to promote conidiation. Arsenite (5.6 mmol . l-1) partially blocked the metabolism of pyruvate and caused its accumulation, which was also promoted by Ca2+ alone. Arsenite did not induce conidiation in vegetative cultures but when combined with Ca2+ it enhanced conidiation. Radiorespirometry and the analysis of accumulated pyruvate, promoted by arsenite, indicated that approximately 54% of carbon was catabolized via combined EMP/ED routes and 46% by the PP pathway and subsequently via a weakly functional TCA cycle. Calcium-induced cultures swung to a primarily ED (25%) and PP (75%) based catabolism with low substrate level phosphorylation, including a facility for a non-phosphorylative ED route, and further diminished oxidative TCA capacity. Pyruvate accumulation in Ca2+-induced cultures coincided with the decline in activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase and a reduced capacity for gluconeogenesis, with other enzymes of pyruvate metabolism showing altered activities. These changes in enzyme activities, pyruvate accumulation and its subsequent metabolism were related to growth rate and the developmental cycle, and are discussed in conjunction with the regulatory role of calcium.