A simple determination of steroidal alkaloid glycosides by thin-layer chromatography immunostaining using monoclonal antibody against solamargine

Progress in Immunoassays of Toxic Alkaloids in Plant-Derived Medicines: A Review

Plants are the cradle of the traditional medicine system, assuaging human or animal diseases, and promoting health for thousands of years. However, many plant-derived medicines contain toxic alkaloids of varying degrees of toxicity that pose a direct or indirect threat to human and animal health through accidental ingestion, misuse of plant materials, or through the food chain. Thus, rapid, easy, and sensitive methods are needed to effectively screen these toxic alkaloids to guarantee the safety of plant-derived medicines. Antibodies, due to their inherent specificity and high affinity, have been used as a variety of analytical tools and techniques. This review describes the antigen synthesis and antibody preparation of the common toxic alkaloids in plant-derived medicines and discusses the advances of antibody-based immunoassays in the screening and detection of toxic alkaloids in plants or other related matrices. Finally, the limitations and prospects of immunoassays for toxic alkaloids are discussed.

Studies on Natural Products Using Monoclonal Antibodies: A Review

An immunoblotting system ("eastern blotting") was developed for small-molecule herbal medicines like glycosides, with no conjugation function to the membrane. Briefly, the crude extracts of herb medicines were developed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The small-molecule herbal medicines on TLC plates were transferred to polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or polyethersulfone (PES) membranes by heating. Antigen components were divided into two categories based on their function, i.e., their membrane recognizing (aglycone part) and fixing (sugar moiety) abilities. This procedure allows for the staining of only target glycosides. Double eastern blotting was developed as a further staining system for two herb medicines using a set of MAbs and substrates.

Monoclonal Antibodies and Immunoassay for Medical Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Review

Owing to the widespread application value, monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) have become a tool of increasing importance in modern bioscience research since their emergence. Recently, some researchers have focused on the production of MAbs against medical plant-derived natural products (MPNP), the secondary metabolites of medical plants. At the same time, various immunoassay methods were established on the basis of these MPNP MAbs, and then rapidly developed into a novel technique for medical plant and phytomedicine research in the area of quality control, pharmacological analysis, drug discovery, and so on. Dependent on the research works carried out in recent years, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of MAbs against MPNP and the application of various immunoassay methods established on the basis of these MAbs, and conclude with a short section on future prospects and research trends in this area.

Steroidal glycoalkaloids: chemical defence of edible African nightshades against the tomato red spider mite, Tetranychus evansi (Acari: Tetranychidae)

BACKGROUND

Tetranychus evansi is an invasive pest of solanaceous crops in Africa, and in the field it differentially attacks edible African nightshades. The chemical basis for the differential attack on these plant species is largely unknown. Using bioassays and chemical analysis, we investigated the differential bioactivity of leaf extracts of three edible African nightshade species, Solanum sarrachoides, S. scabrum and S. villosum, on adult T. evansi females.

RESULTS

Only the bioactivity of the leaf extract of S. sarrachoides (LC50 7.44 mg mL(-1)) and that of its most polar fraction (LC50 5.44 mg mL(-1)) paralleled that of the positive control, neem oil (LC50 1.89 mg mL(-1)), across all doses tested. Liquid chromatography-quadruple time of flight-mass spectrometry identified a mixture of steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs), including α-solasonine, α-solamargine and derivatives of tomatine and demissine, which were neither detected in the crude extract nor in any of the fractions obtained from S. scabrum and S. villosum.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the presence of SGAs may play a key role in the differential defence of edible African nightshades against attack by T. evansi. These findings may add to the plethora of environmentally friendly tools from natural plant products for management of T. evansi.

Coupling of In Vitro Bioassays with Planar Chromatography in Effect-Directed Analysis

Modern analytical test methods increasingly detect anthropogenic organic substances and their transformation products in water samples and in the environment. The presence of these compounds might pose a risk to the aquatic environment. To determine a possible (eco)toxicological risk, aquatic samples are tested using various bioassays, including sub-organismic assays such as the luminescent bacteria inhibition test, the acetylcholinesterase inhibition test, and the umu-test. The effect-directed analysis (EDA) combines physicochemical separation methods with biological (in vitro) tests. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) has proved to be particularly well suited for the separation of organic compounds and the subsequent analysis of effects by the application of the biotests directly on the surface of the HPTLC plate. The advantage of using HPTLC in comparison to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for EDA is that the solvent which is used as a mobile phase during chromatography is completely evaporated after the separation and therefore can no longer influence the applied bioassays.A prioritization during the complex identification process can be achieved when observed effects are associated with the separated zones in HPTLC. This increases the probability of identifying the substance responsible for an adverse effect from the multitude of organic trace substances in environmental samples. Furthermore, by comparing the pattern of biological effects of a separated sample, it is possible to track and assess changes in biological activity over time, over space, or in the course of a process, even without identifying the substance. HPTLC has already been coupled with various bioassays.Because HPTLC is a very flexible system, various detection techniques can be used and combined. In addition to the UV/Vis absorption and fluorescence measurements, TLC can also be coupled with a mass spectrometer (MS) for compound identification. In addition, detection of functional groups by means of derivatization reagents can support this identification. It is also possible to combine derivatization and HPLC-MS.Two case studies are used to illustrate the significance of HPTLC-EDA in investigating water quality: Study on a wastewater treatment plant Possible influence of an artificial turf surface on ground water.

Quantification of steroidal alkaloids in Buxus papillosa using electrospray ionization liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

Buxus papillosa is one of the most extensively studied species of the genus Buxus known to possess steroidal alkaloids which can be used for assessing the various pharmacological activities of this plant. This paper describes the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-QQQ-MS) method for the quantification of six steroidal alkaloids as chemical markers in the extracts of leaves, roots and stems of B. papillosa. Quantitative MS/MS analysis was carried out by optimization of the most sensitive transition for each analyte. This has yielded detection and quantification limits of 0.486-8.08 ng/mL and 1.473-24.268 ng/mL, respectively for all analytes. Linearity of response was also achieved and the regression coefficient found to be >0.99 for all analyzed compounds. The newly developed MRM (Multiple Reaction Monitoring) method showed excellent sensitivity for the quantification of steroidal alkaloids within 15 min run time. This paper describes the application of LC-QQQ-MS technique for steroidal alkaloids analysis in plant samples.

Development and validation a liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for determination of solasodine in rat plasma and its application to a pharmacokinetic study

Solasodine is a poisonous alkaloid chemical compound that occurs in plants of the Solanaceae family. A simple and selective liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method for determination of solasodine in rat plasma was developed and validated over the range of 3-1,000 ng/mL. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 (2.1 mm×50 mm, 3.5 μm) column with acetonitrile-0.1% formic acid in water as mobile phase with gradient elution. The flow rate was set at 0.4 mL/min. After addition of midazolam as internal standard (IS), liquid-liquid extraction by ethyl acetate was used as sample preparation. An electrospray ionization source was applied and operated in positive ion mode; selective ion monitoring mode was used for quantification with target ions m/z 414 for solasodine and m/z 326 for IS. Mean recoveries of solasodine in rat plasma were in the range of 87.6-94.1%. Matrix effects for solasodine were between 94.9% and 102.3%. Coefficient of variation of intra-day and inter-day precision were both <13%. The accuracy of the method ranged from 94.4% to 105.3%. The method was successfully applied to a pharmacokinetic study of solasodine after oral administration of 20mg/kg in rats.

Detection of paeoniflorin and albiflorin by immunostaining technique using anti-paeoniflorin monoclonal antibody

INTRODUCTION

Paeoniae radix is one of the most important crude drugs used in Kampo medicines (KMs). A part of its pharmaceutical properties is due to the presence of paeoniflorin (PF) and albiflorin (AF).

OBJECTIVE

For the specific and easy identification of PF and AF, an immunostaining technique was developed using anti-PF monoclonal antibody (MAb).

METHODOLOGY

PF and AF were treated with a NaIO₄ solution and reacted with bovine serum albumin (BSA) preparing PF- and AF-BSA conjugates on the polyethersulphone (PES) membrane. Anti-PF MAb was bound and then antibody labelled with peroxidase directed against anti-PF MAb. Finally, a substrate was added and then PF and AF were detected.

RESULTS

Anti-PF MAb recognised not only PF but also AF when 10 µg was present on the PES membrane. As little as 0.5 µg of PF and AF were still detected under immunostaining. Various Paeoniae radix samples and KMs were qualitatively analysed, and total amounts of PF and AF were visually detected by immunostaining technique. This method was applied to investigate the distribution of PF and AF in fresh peony root using immunoblotting by transferred from peony root to the PES membrane.

CONCLUSION

The technique permitted the visualisation of PF and AF on PES membrane using immunostaining. The immunostaining technique established would be a powerful tool for probing the sources of PF and AF in plant extracts.

Standardization of Licorice and TCM Formulations Using Eastern Blot Fingerprinting Analysis

To prepare the antiglycyrrhizin (GC) monoclonal antibody (MAb), GC was treated with NaIO4resulting in aldehyde which can be combined with carrier protein. An antigen conjugate was performed by a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization TOF mass spectrometry to determine the hapten numbers in the conjugate. Anti-GC MAb was prepared from a hybridoma which was fixed from the spleen cells producing anti-GC MAb and the myeloma cells after immunization. The TCM and licorice extract were developed by TLC and blotted to a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane. The membrane was treated by NaIO4and protein, enzyme labeled secondary MAb, and finally substrate was added. Clear spot appeared on PVDF membrane identifying GC against a background containing large amount of impurities. In eastern blotting, the GC molecule was divided into two functions. The aglycone part is recognized as an epitope and the sugar moiety can be combined to membrane. The specific reactivity of sugar moiety in the GC molecule against anti-GC MAb might be modified by the NaIO4treatment on the membrane because glycyrrhetic acid 3-O-glucuronide can be stained although the cross-reactivity is only 4.3%. Eastern blotting for GC can not only apply for the standardization of licorice and TCM, but also it can open for the other bioactive products.

Monoclonal antibodies against naturally occurring bioactive compounds

The ratio of hapten to bovine serum albumin (BSA) in an antigen conjugate was determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) tof mass spectrometry. A hybridoma secreting monoclonal antibody (MAb) was produced by fusing splenocytes immunized with an antigen-BSA conjugate with HAT-sensitive mouse myeloma cells. The cross-reaction of anti-forskolin antibodies with 7-deacetyl forskolin was 5.6%. A very small cross-reaction appeared with other derivatives. The full measuring range of the assay extends from 5 ng to 5 mug/ml of forskolin. Immunoaffinity column chromatography using anti-forskolin MAbs appears to be far superior to previously published separation methods. The capacity of the immunoaffinity column as determined by ELISA is 9 mug/ml. Forskolin has been isolated directly from the crude extracts of tuberous roots and the callus culture of Coleus forskohlii. A MAb against tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) was produced. The cross-reaction of anti-THCA antibody against other cannabinoids was very wide. Many cannabinoids and a spiro-compound were reactive, but did not react with other phenolics. It became evident that this ELISA was able to be applied to the biotransformation experiments of cannabinoids in plant tissue culture system. Anti-ginsenoside Rb1 MAbs were produced. New western blotting method of determination for ginsenosides was established. Ginsenosides separated by silica gel TLC were transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane. The membrane was treated with NaIO(4) solution followed by BSA, resulting in a ginsenoside-BSA conjugate. Immunostaining of ginsenosides was more sensitive compared to other staining. Immunostaining of ginsenosides in the fresh ginseng root was succeeded using anti-ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) MAb after blotting to PVDF membrane.

Application of Monoclonal Antibodies against Bioactive Natural Products: Eastern Blotting and Preparation of Knockout Extract

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) tof mass spectrometry was used for the confirmation of hapten number in synthesized antigen. As application of MAb, the MAbs against ginsenosides and glycyrrhizin have been prepared resulting in the development of two new techniques that we named the eastern blotting method and the knockout extract preparation. In eastern blotting technique, glycosides like ginsenosides and glycyrrhizin separated by silica gel TLC were blotted to PVDF membrane that was treated with a NaIO₄ solution followed by BSA resulted in glycoside-BSA conjugate on a PVDF membrane. The blotted spots were stained by MAb. Double staining of eastern blotting for ginsenosides using antiginsenoside Rb₁ and Rg₁ MAbs promoted complete identification of ginsenosides in Panax species. The immunoaffinity concentration of glycyrrhizin was determined by immunoaffinity column conjugated with antiglycyrrhizin MAb resulting in the glycyrrhizin-knockout extract, which was determined by the synergic effect with glycyrrhizin on NO production using the cell line.

Preparation of anti-2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid monoclonal antibodies

The ratios of hapten and bovine serum albumin (BSA) in an antigen conjugate were determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. Hybridomas secreting monoclonal antibodies against 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) were produced by fusing 2,4-D-BSA conjugate-immunized splenocytes with a HAT-sensitive mouse myeloma cell line, P3-X63-Ag8-653. A substantial cross-reaction was observed for 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DP) when compared with that observed for 2,4-D. The full measurement range for this assay is 0.2-3 mug ml(-1) for 2,4-DP. On the other hand, the range for 2,4-D is between 1 and 20 mug ml(-1).

Preparation of monoclonal antibody against crocin and its characterization

Three crocin-carrier protein conjugates were synthesized and their hapten numbers were determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry. Three monoclonal antibodies against crocin were produced by hybridomas fused with the splenocytes immunized with crocin hemisuccinate-bovine serum albumin conjugate and HAT-sensitive mouse myeloma cell line, P3-X63-Ag8-653. They were identified as IgG2a and IgG2b possessing lambda light chain, respectively. Their wide reactivities against crocetin glycosides were discussed.

Monoclonal Antibodies against Small Molecule Natural Products and Their Applications, Eastern Blotting and Knockout Extract

To determine the hapten number in hapten-carrier protein conjugate matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) tof mass spectrometry was applied. Highly specific anti-ginsenoside Rb₁ and Rg₁ monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were prepared. Ginsenosides were developed on thin layer chromatography (TLC) plates which were covered by a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane resulting in blotting. The membrane was treated with NaIO₄ solution to release the aldehyde group on the sugar moiety of the ginsenosides. By treatment of the membrane with a protein solution the ginsenoside-protein conjugation as a Schiff-base occurred, which can function to fix it to the PVDF membrane. A part of the ginsenoside aglycone was reacted with anti-ginsenoside Rb₁ MAb, secondary MAb conjugated with enzyme and finally a substrate was added, resulting in a specific and highly sensitive staining that we named Eastern blotting. Furthermore, it makes one-step isolation of ginsenoside Rb₁ possible using an immuno-affinity column conjugated with anti-ginsenoside Rb₁ MAb. Furthermore, immunoaffinity concentration was carried out allowing high sensitivity analysis of lower concentrations of ginsenoside Rb₁ so that several unknown bands could be structurally determined.

Lipid analysis by thin-layer chromatography--a review of the current state

High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) is a widely used, fast and relatively inexpensive method of separating complex mixtures. It is particularly useful for smaller, apolar compounds and offers some advantages over HPLC. This review gives an overview about the special features as well as the problems that have to be considered upon the HPTLC analysis of lipids. The term "lipids" is used here in a broad sense and comprises fatty acids and their derivatives as well as substances related biosynthetically or functionally to these compounds. After a short introduction regarding the stationary phases and the methods how lipids can be visualized on an HPTLC plate, the individual lipid classes will be discussed and the most suitable solvent systems for their separation indicated. The focus will be on lipids that are most abundant in biological systems, i.e. cholesterol and its derivates, glycerides, sphingo- and glycolipids as well as phospholipids. Finally, a nowadays very important topic, the combination between HPTLC and mass spectrometric (MS) detection methods will be discussed. It will be shown that this is a very powerful method to investigate the identities of the HPTLC spots in more detail than by the use of common staining methods. Future aspects of HPTLC in the lipid field will be also discussed.

Evaluation of a new eastern blotting technique for the analysis of ginsenoside Re in American ginseng berry pulp extracts

A new eastern blotting technique has been established for ginsenoside Re (G-Re) contained in American ginseng berry pulp extracts. G-Re in American ginseng berry pulp was extracted using 100% methanol, 100% ethanol, 50% aqueous methanol, and 50% aqueous ethanol. The combined crude extracts were applied onto a polyethersulfone membrane and developed using the methanol-water-acetic acid solvent system (45:55:1 v/v). Separated components were immunostained using anti-G-Re monoclonal antibody. G-Re was first specifically detected and then quantitatively analyzed using NIH Imaging software. We also confirmed that the most suitable solvent was 50% aqueous methanol for extracting G-Re from American ginseng berry pulp.

Development of eastern blotting technique for sennoside A and sennoside B using anti-sennoside A and anti-sennoside B monoclonal antibodies

INTRODUCTION

Rhubarb, senna and sennoside-containing preparations are currently widely employed as purgatives. The major active components of these medications are sennoside A (SA) and sennoside B (SB).

OBJECTIVE

To develop an eastern blotting technique for the specific visualisation and easy determination of SA and SB in plant extracts for application in the standardisation and authentication of rhubarb and senna.

METHODOLOGY

SA and SB were separated by TLC, transferred to a PVDF membrane, treated with 1-ethyl-3-(3'-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide hydrochloride solution and finally treated with bovine serum albumin (BSA). The resulting membrane-bound SA-BSA and SB-BSA conjugates were linked to anti-SA and anti-SB monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) and then to secondary antibodies labelled with peroxidase. SA and SB were detected by visualisation of the peroxidase reaction products.

RESULTS

The limit of detection of the eastern blotting was 62.5 ng for both sennosides. The method was applied to the immunohistochemical localisation of SA in fresh rhubarb root. Phloem and radiate wood were found to contain higher concentrations of SA compared with other tissues (pith and bud) in agreement with results obtained by ELISA. The concentrations of SA in the phloem, radiate wood, pith and bud were 64.4, 48.1, 15.0 and 1.8 ng/mg fresh weight, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The technique described permitted the visualisation of small molecular weight compounds that had been bound to a membrane, using immunostaining. Owing to the specificity of the MAbs, the eastern blotting may prove to be a useful method for the identification of SA and SB in a background containing large amount of impurities.

Eastern blotting and immunoaffinity concentration using monoclonal antibody for ginseng saponins in the field of traditional chinese medicines

Ginsenosides separated by silica gel TLC blotted to a PVDF membrane that was treated with a NaIO4 solution followed by bovine serum albumin (BSA) resulted in a ginsenoside-BSA conjugate on a PVDF membrane. The blotted spots were stained by anti-ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1) and -Rg1 (G-Rg1) monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The newly established immunostaining method, Eastern blotting, was applied for the determination of ginsenosides possessing protopanaxadiol and/or protopanaxatriol in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). This method developed a new way to separate the ginsenoside molecule into two functional parts using a simple and well-known chemical reaction. The sugar parts were oxidized by NaIO4 to give dialdehydes, which reacted with amino groups of the protein and covalently bound to the adsorbent PVDF membrane. The MAb bound to the aglycon part of the ginsenoside molecule for immunostaining. Double staining of Eastern blotting for ginsenosides using anti-G-Rb1 and -Rg1 MAbs promoted complete identification of ginsenosides in Panax species. The immunoaffinity concentration of G-Rb1 was deteremined by immunoaffinity column conjugated with anti-G-Rb1 MAb leading to the knock-out extract, which will be useful for the pharmacological investigation. To concentrate and determine G-Rb1 in P. japonicus, the crude extract of P. japonicus was fractionated by immunoaffinity column conjugated with anti-G-Rb1 MAb. Two ginsenosides, chikusetsusaponins III and IV having protopanaxadiol as an aglycon, were identified by Eastern blotting, although it was expected that G-Rb1 might be a component of P. japonicus by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis.

Pharmacokinetic study of ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 in rat by ELISA using anti-ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 monoclonal antibodies

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) systems using anti-ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1) and Rg1 (G-Rg1) monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were established for pharmacokinetic investigations of G-Rb1 and G-Rg1 in rat serum. The systems not only allowed sensitive detection of G-Rb1 at the level as low as 20 ng/ml and of G-Rg1 at 300 ng/ml, but showed strong capacity for detecting the two agents in a broad concentration range (20 to 400 ng/ml for G-Rb1 and 0.3 to 10 microg/ml for G-Rg1, respectively). In this respect, these assay systems are superior to other methods using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In addition, another advantage of these immunoassays is the comparably low quantities of specimen required; as little as 5 microl of serum suffices the need for determination of ginsenosides. We report in this article the application of this immunoassay in pharmacokinetic study of G-Rb1.

Characterization and identification of steroidal alkaloids in the Chinese herb Veratrum nigrum L. by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization with multi-stage mass spectrometry

Electrospray ionization multi-stage mass spectrometry (ESI-MS(n)) was performed to study the fragmentation behaviour of seventeen steroidal alkaloids (4 protoverine-type alkaloids, 10 germine-type alkaloids and 3 zygadenin-type alkaloids) from the Chinese herb Veratrum nigrum L. The MS(n) spectra of the [M+H](+) ions for steroidal alkaloids provided a wealth of structural information on the substituted groups. In positive ion mode, the three types of alkaloids showed very different characteristic ions: m/z 436 or 418 for protoverine-type alkaloids; m/z 438, 420 or 402 for germine-type alkaloids; m/z 440 or 422 for zygadenin-type alkaloids. These fragments were used to deduce their mass spectral fragmentation mechanisms. Furthermore, the primary compounds in methanolic extracts of the herb of Veratrum nigrum L. were investigated by using liquid chromatography (LC)/ESI-MS(n). As a result, 21 steroidal alkaloids (5 protoverine-type alkaloids, 14 germine-type alkaloids and 2 zygadenin-type alkaloids) were selectively identified from 27 determined peaks. Eleven compounds were unambiguously identified by comparing with standard compounds and ten compounds were tentatively identified or deduced according to their MS(n) data. Two of these compounds (xingangermine and deacetyl xinganveratrine) were found to be novel steroidal alkaloids. In addition, the chemical structures of two pairs of steroidal alkaloid isomers were deduced by comparing their fragment ions. Given the important structural information of known and unknown steroidal alkaloids in crude herbal extracts, this study is useful for identifying these types of steroidal alkaloids in crude materials rapidly and selectively.

Determination of ruscogenin in crude Chinese medicines and biological samples by immunoassay

Ruscogenin is a major bioactive steroidal aglycone found in the Chinese medicine, Ophiopogon japonicus. We have developed a quantitative determination of ruscogenin with an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA) assay using polyclonal antibodies against ruscogenin conjugated with bovine serum albumin. This assay was highly sensitive, and it had considerably less cross-reactivity to diosgenin and sarsasapogenin, but high cross-reactivity to ruscogenin glycosides. The assay was successfully used for the measurement of ruscogenin concentrations in crude Chinese medicines and in biological samples from a pharmacokinetics study of ruscogenin.

Visual detection of saikosaponins by on-membrane immunoassay and estimation of traditional Chinese medicines containing Bupleuri radix

The purpose of this study was to describe the simple, rapid, and environmental-cost effective determination method for saikosaponins in complicated samples like Bupleuri radix and traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). Saikosaponin standards, extracts of Bupleuri radix and TCM, were applied to a polyethersulphone (PES) membrane and developed by acetonitrile-water (1:4, by volume). Saikosaponin a (SSa), SSc, and SSd were visually detected by an immunostaining method (called Eastern blotting technique) using a monoclonal antibody (MAb) against SSa. At least 62.5 ng of SSa, SSc, and SSd were clearly detectable individually. These coloring spot areas of saikosaponins on PES membrane were calculated by using the NIH Imaging software and three saikosaponins can be analyzed quantitatively between 62.5 ng and 1.0 microg. Saikosaponins in Bupleuri radix and TCM were determined and these results of SSa and total saikosaponin concentrations were in good agreement with those from the ELISA analysis.

An on-membrane quantitative analysis system for glycyrrhizin in licorice roots and traditional Chinese medicines

An on-membrane quantitative analysis system has been developed for determining glycyrrhizin (GC) in licorice roots and traditional Chinese medicines. A GC standard and the extracts of licorice roots and traditional Chinese medicines were applied to a polyethersulfone (PES) membrane and were developed by acetonitrile/water/formic acid (45:55:2, by volume), then treated with a NaIO4 solution followed by bovine serum albumin (BSA), resulting in a GC-BSA conjugate on a PES membrane. Anti-GC monoclonal antibody was bound and then a second antibody labeled with peroxidase directed against the first antibody. Finally a substrate reacted with the enzyme and gave staining. The stained membrane was scanned and coloring spots were analyzed quantitatively using graphic analysis by NIH Image software, indicating at least 0.5 microg of GC was clearly detectable. GC can be analyzed quantitatively between 1.0 and 8.0 microg.

Chromatographic resolution of glucosidic compounds, ginsenosides on polyethersulphone membrane, and its application to the quantitative immunoassay for ginseng saponins

A method has been devised for the chromatographic resolution of glucosidic compounds, ginseng saponins, on polyethersulphone (PES) membrane. The method results in good resolution and quantitative immunoassay for ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1), G-Rc, and G-Rd in crude extracts of various ginsengs. The newly established method is simpler and applies for quantitative analysis. Ginsenosides developed by acetonitrile-water-acetic acid solvent system on a PES membrane were directly treated with a NaIO4 solution followed by bovine serum albumin (BSA), resulting in a ginsenoside-BSA conjugate on a PES membrane. Anti-G-Rb1 monoclonal antibody (MAb) was bound, and then a second antibody labeled with peroxidase directed against the first antibody. Finally a substrate reacted to the enzyme and gave staining. The stained membrane was scanned, and spots were analyzed quantitatively using NIH Image software. At least 62.5 ng of G-Rb1, G-Rc, and G-Rd were clearly detectable individually. Three ginsenosides can be analyzed quantitatively between 0.125 and 2.0 microg.

Screening and Identification of Glycosides in Biological Samples Using Energy-Gradient Neutral Loss Scan and Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A rapid, selective, and reliable strategy has been developed for the screening and identification of glycosides in biological samples: a crude extract was directly infused to a triple-quadrupole MS/MS, and major glycosides were screened out with high confidence by an energy-gradient neutral loss scan (EGNLS) for the loss of sugar(s); then these glycosides were further identified with LC/MS/MS. The proposed EGNLS method was established and optimized with 16 representative glycosides (including ginsenosides and the glycosides of flavones, anthraquinones, and terpenoids). The EGNLS method has two major advantages over the conventional fixed-energy neutral loss scan: (1) The latter is liable to '"omit" some target compounds due to the usual mismatch between the preset collision energy and interested compounds' optimal collision energy (OCE), while EGNLS solves this problem by scanning over an energy range. (2) The EGNLS simultaneously measures the screened compounds' OCE, which not only are essential parameters for further LC/MS/MS analysis but also carry some structural information, as proved by this study. This strategy has been successfully demonstrated with the analysis of glycosides in Scutellaria viscidula Bge and transformed Panaxhairy roots (the glycoside constitutions of both had not been studied before): without laborious separation processes; comprehensive glycoside information on those two plants was obtained by a rapid and simple procedure. This strategy is valuable for the study of glycosides in complex samples.

Double staining of ginsenosides by Western blotting using anti-ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1 monoclonal antibodies

Ginsenosides separated by silica gel TLC blotted to a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane was treated with a NaIO4 solution followed by bovine serum albumin (BSA), resulting in a ginsenoside-BSA conjugate on a PVDF membrane. The blotted bands were stained with anti-ginsenoside Rg1 and Rb1 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The newly established double staining with the Western blotting methods was applied for the determination of ginsenosides possessing protopanaxadiol or protopanaxatriol and the number of sugar depending on the stained color and their Rf values in the Panax plants.

Identification and determination of glucuronides and their aglycones in Erigeron breviscapus by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A novel, speedy and reliable LC-MS-MS method for the search, identification and quantitation of O-glycosides and their aglycones from plant resources was established by analyzing the extract of Erigeron breviscapus. The extract was directly infused to a triple-quadrupole MS-MS and major glucuronides in the extract were screened out with high confidence by a neutral loss scan for the loss of a gluconic acid. The identity of these glucuronides and their aglycones was further confirmed with LC-MS-MS. In addition to scutellarin, apigenin 7-O-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide and their aglycones that were previously reported by others, we also confirmed by LC-MS-MS that remarkable amount of baicalin, an isomer of apigenin 7-O-glucuronide, presented in the extract of this plant, which had not been reported before. A satisfying quantitation of three glucuronides was also made by LC-MS-MS.

Formation of monoclonal antibody against a major ginseng component, ginsenoside Rg1 and its characterization. Monoclonal antibody for a ginseng saponin

The ratio of hapten and bovine serum albumin in an antigenconjugate was determined by matrix-assisted laserdesorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Ahybridoma secreting monoclonal antibody against ginsenosideRg(1) was produced by fusing sprenocytes immunized with aginsenoside Rg(1)-bovine serum albumin conjugate withHAT-sensitive mouse myeloma cell line, P3-X63-Ag8-653. A very smallcross-reaction appeared with ginsenoside Re. The full measuringrange of the assay extends from 0.3 mug ml(-1) to 10 mug ml(-1) ofginsenoside Rg(1).

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry of carbohydrates

This review describes the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry to carbohydrate analysis and covers the period 1991-1998. The technique is particularly valuable for carbohydrates because it enables underivatised, as well as derivatised compounds to be examined. The various MALDI matrices that have been used for carbohydrate analysis are described, and the use of derivatization for improving mass spectral detection limits is also discussed. Methods for sample preparation and for extracting carbohydrates from biological media prior to mass spectrometric analysis are compared with emphasis on highly sensitive mass spectrometric methods. Quantitative aspects of MALDI are covered with respect to the relationship between signal strength and both mass and compound structure. The value of mass measurements by MALDI to provide a carbohydrate composition is stressed, together with the ability of the technique to provide fragmentation spectra. The use of in-source and post-source decay and collision-induced fragmentation in this context is described with emphasis on ions that provide information on the linkage and branching patterns of carbohydrates. The use of MALDI mass spectrometry, linked with exoglycosidase sequencing, is described for N-linked glycans derived from glycoproteins, and methods for the analysis of O-linked glycans are also covered. The review ends with a description of various applications of the technique to carbohydrates found as constituents of glycoproteins, bacterial glycolipids, sphingolipids, and glycolipid anchors.

Identification of Cannabis pollens using an allergic patient's immunoglobulin E and purification and characterization of allergens in Cannabis pollens

Cannabis pollen allergens were detected using the serum of an allergic patient. The allergens were then purified by sequential column chromatography (including DE52 cellulose and phenyl-Sepharose CL-4B) and preparative HPLC. The molecular weight of the allergens were determined as 10,050 and 13,706 by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry. We utilised Western blotting and development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of Cannabis pollen allergens.

Cell hybridization, hybridomas, and human hybridomas

Cell hybridization is one of the most basic cytotechnologies. The hemagglutinating virus of Japan was first used to cause cell fusion; however, polyethylene glycol is widely used now because of simplicity of procedure. This chapter first explains the principles of cell hybridization methods and then describes the practical protocols for preparing mouse hybridomas using polyethylene glycol. So far, lack of an excellent human fusion partner cell line that has high fusion efficiencies and does not produce immunoglobulin has hindered the spread of human-human hybridoma preparation methods. In the authors' laboratory NAT-30 and HO-323, human parent cell lines with high fusion efficiencies, have been established to prepare many hybridoma cell lines producing cancer-specific human monoclonal antibodies. Because NAT-30 and HO-323 cell lines are IgM producers, it is difficult to obtain IgG-producing hybridomas because the types of immunoglobulin produced by hybridomas are strongly affected by the characteristics of parent cells. Thus a nonimmunoglobulin-producing human parent cell line, A4H12, derived from human T lymphoma was established that can efficiently obtain IgG-producing human hybridomas. Another problem with preparing human hybridomas is that it is difficult to obtain B lymphocytes immunized with optional antigens for ethical reasons. To overcome this problem, in vitro immunization methods have been developed that allow exposure of a large number of B lymphocytes to cultured cancer cell or soluble antigens. The section on human hybridomas explains human fusion partners, in vitro immunization methods, and the preparation of human-human hybridomas using an electrofusion method. Finally, the application of human monoclonal antibodies to medical uses and the preparation of supranatural monoclonal antibodies are reviewed. These include multifunctional monoclonal antibodies and altered monoclonal antibodies having increased affinity and specificity by exchanging or modifying light chains.

Genetic and alkaloid analysis of Papaver species and their F1 hybrid by RAPD, HPLC and ELISA

Total DNA was extracted from the leaves of a F1 hybrid and its parents, Papaver bracteatum Lindle and P. pseudo-orientale Medw. Analysis of random-amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) using ten arbitrary oligonucleotide 10-mers, showed that F1 hybrid was confirmed to be genetically intermediate of both parental plants compared with the genetic distance between F1 hybrid and individual parents. Furthermore, the comparison of the band patterns between a F1 hybrid, P. bracteatum and P. pseudo-orientale clearly showed that part of the bands of both parents were induced into a F1 hybrid. The content of thebaine was determined by HPLC and ELISA used anti-thebaine monoclonal antibody.