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Upregulation of Lysyl Oxidase Expression in Vitreous of Diabetic Subjects: Implications for Diabetic Retinopathy. Cells 2019; 8:cells8101122. [PMID: 31546618 PMCID: PMC6829411 DOI: 10.3390/cells8101122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal studies have shown diabetes-induced lysyl oxidase (LOX) upregulation promotes blood-retinal-barrier breakdown and retinal vascular cell loss associated with diabetic retinopathy (DR). However, it is unclear whether changes in LOX expression contribute to the development and progression of DR. To determine if vitreous LOX levels are altered in patients with DR, 31 vitreous specimens from subjects with advanced proliferative DR (PDR), and 27 from non-diabetics were examined. The two groups were age- and gender-matched (57 ± 12 yrs vs. 53 ± 18 yrs; 19 males and 12 females vs. 17 males and 10 females). Vitreous samples obtained during vitrectomy were assessed for LOX levels using ELISA. LOX was detected in a larger number of PDR subjects (58%) than in non-diabetic subjects (15%). Additionally, ELISA measurements showed a significant increase in LOX levels in the diabetic subjects with PDR, compared to those of non-diabetic subjects (68.3 ± 112 ng/mL vs. 2.1 ± 8.2 ng/mL; p < 0.01). No gender difference in vitreous LOX levels was observed in either the diabetic or non-diabetic groups. Findings support previous reports of increased LOX levels in retinas of diabetic animals and in retinal vascular cells in high glucose condition, raising the prospect of targeting LOX overexpression as a potential target for PDR treatment.
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2
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Oleggini R, Di Donato A. Lysyl oxidase regulates MMTV promoter: indirect evidence of histone H1 involvement. Biochem Cell Biol 2011; 89:522-32. [DOI: 10.1139/o11-049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is the enzyme that facilitates the cross-linking of collagen and elastin, although other functions for this enzyme have been indicated. Of these other functions, we describe herein the ability of LOX to regulate several gene promoters, like collagen III, elastin, and cyclin D1. We have previously demonstrated a specific binding between LOX and histone H1, in vitro. Therefore, we investigated whether LOX would affect the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) promoter and its glucocorticoid regulation, which depends on the phophorylation status of histone H1. Our results show that the over-expression of recombinant human LOX was able to trigger MMTV activity, both in the presence and absence of glucocorticoids. Moreover, we demonstrated that histone H1 from cells expressing recombinant LOX contained isodesmosine and desmosine, indicating specific lysyl-oxidase-dependent lysine modifications. Finally, we were able to co-immunoprecipitate the exogenous LOX and histone H1 from the LOX transfected cells. The data are compatible with a decreased positive charge of histone H1, owing to deamination by LOX of its lysine residues. This event would favor H1 detachment from the target DNA, and consequent opening of the MMTV promoter structure to the activating transcription factors. The presented data, therefore, suggest a possible histone-H1-dependent mechanism for the modulation of MMTV promoter by LOX.
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van Boxtel AL, Gansner JM, Hakvoort HWJ, Snell H, Legler J, Gitlin JD. Lysyl oxidase-like 3b is critical for cartilage maturation during zebrafish craniofacial development. Matrix Biol 2011; 30:178-87. [PMID: 21244857 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Revised: 12/18/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate craniofacial development requires coordinated morphogenetic interactions between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the differentiating chondrocytes essential for cartilage formation. Recent studies reveal a critical role for specific lysyl oxidases in ECM integrity required for embryonic development. We now demonstrate that loxl3b is abundantly expressed within the head mesenchyme of the zebrafish and is critically important for maturation of neural crest derived cartilage elements. Histological and ultrastructural analyses of cartilage elements in loxl3b morphant embryos reveal abnormal maturation of cartilage and altered chondrocyte morphology. Spatiotemporal analysis of craniofacial markers in loxl3b morphant embryos shows that cranial neural crest cells migrate normally into the developing pharyngeal arches but that differentiation and condensation markers are aberrantly expressed. We further show that the loxl3b morphant phenotype is not due to P53 mediated cell death but likely to be due to reduced chondrogenic progenitor cell proliferation within the pharyngeal arches. Taken together, these data demonstrate a novel role for loxl3b in the maturation of craniofacial cartilage and can provide new insight into the specific genetic factors important in the pathogenesis of craniofacial birth defects.
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4
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Mello MLS, Alvarenga EM, Vidal BDC, Di Donato A. Chromatin supraorganization, mitotic abnormalities and proliferation in cells with increased or down-regulated lox expression: Indirect evidence of a LOX–histone H1 interaction in vivo. Micron 2011; 42:8-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2010.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2010] [Revised: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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5
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Lysyl oxidase: a potential target for cancer therapy. Inflammopharmacology 2010; 19:117-29. [DOI: 10.1007/s10787-010-0073-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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6
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Groebe K, Hayess K, Klemm-Manns M, Schwall G, Wozny W, Steemans M, Peters AK, Sastri C, Jaeckel P, Stegmann W, Zengerling H, Schöpf R, Poznanovic S, Stummann TC, Seiler A, Spielmann H, Schrattenholz A. Protein Biomarkers for in Vitro Testing of Embryotoxicity. J Proteome Res 2010; 9:5727-38. [DOI: 10.1021/pr100514e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karlfried Groebe
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Katrin Hayess
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Martina Klemm-Manns
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Gerhard Schwall
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Woijciech Wozny
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Margino Steemans
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Annelieke K. Peters
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Chaturvedala Sastri
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Petra Jaeckel
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Werner Stegmann
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Helmut Zengerling
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Rainer Schöpf
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Slobodan Poznanovic
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Tina C. Stummann
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Andrea Seiler
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Horst Spielmann
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
| | - André Schrattenholz
- ProteoSys AG, Carl-Zeiss.-Str. 51, D-55129 Mainz, Germany, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Center for Alternative Methods to Animal Experiments - ZEBET Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany, Johnson & Johnson PRD, a division of Janssen Pharmaceutical, 2340 Beerse, Belgium, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (IHCP, JRC), Via Fermi, 121020 Ispra, Italy
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7
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Purification of high yields of catalytically active lysyl oxidase directly from Escherichia coli cell culture. Protein Expr Purif 2010; 74:116-21. [PMID: 20600936 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2010.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Revised: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase is a highly insoluble enzyme requiring high concentrations of urea to solubilize. A method to obtain lysyl oxidase in high yields directly from an Escherichia coli culture without the need for refolding of inclusion bodies has been developed using nutrient rich media. pET21b was used to overexpress the lysyl oxidase enzyme and to introduce a C-terminal 6X histidine tag for purification. Lysyl oxidase yields of 10 mg of active and properly folded enzyme per liter of media have been obtained. Purification was achieved via affinity chromatography using a Ni-NTA column. Copper content was found to be 19%. LTQ cofactor formation in LOX is a self-processing event in the presence of copper. LTQ content was determined to be 24% based on reaction with phenylhydrazine to form a phenylhydrazone adduct. Quantification of this adduct was attained using the previously reported extinction coefficient of 15.4 mM(-1)cm(-1). LTQ presence was also verified by redox cycling. Specific enzymatic activity was measured to be 0.31 U/mg, one of the highest activities reported.
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8
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Saad FA, Torres M, Wang H, Graham L. Intracellular lysyl oxidase: Effect of a specific inhibitor on nuclear mass in proliferating cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010; 396:944-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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9
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Contente S, Yeh TJA, Friedman RM. Tumor suppressive effect of lysyl oxidase proenzyme. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2009; 1793:1272-8. [PMID: 19410608 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2009.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2008] [Revised: 04/17/2009] [Accepted: 04/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase acts as both a matrix modifying enzyme and an oncogene suppressor. It is synthesized as a 50-kDa proenzyme, secreted, and processed into an approximately 30 kDa mature, active enzyme and an 18-kDa propeptide. The tumor suppressive effect of lysyl oxidase appears to be exerted within the cell, so the subcellular localization of protein forms was investigated. Propeptide-specific antibody detected 50-kDa proenzyme in cytoplasmic and nuclear extracts of non-transformed mouse fibroblasts, but free 18-kDa propeptide was not detected in any extract. Antibody to epitope near the N-terminus of mature lysyl oxidase detected the proenzyme product in non-transformed cells, and a 30-kDa cytoplasmic protein in both non-transformed and transformed cells. RNA interference reduced the expression of lysyl oxidase mRNA and 50-kDa proenzyme in non-transformed cells, but had no effect on 30-kDa protein, indicating that although this protein displays a lysyl oxidase epitope, it is not derived from lysyl oxidase message. The absence of both free 18-kDa propeptide and mature lysyl oxidase within non-transformed cells suggests that cellular reversion after restoration of lysyl oxidase gene expression is mediated by the 50-kDa proenzyme within cells.
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10
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The lysyl oxidase inhibitor, beta-aminopropionitrile, diminishes the metastatic colonization potential of circulating breast cancer cells. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5620. [PMID: 19440335 PMCID: PMC2680032 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 04/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX), an extracellular matrix remodeling enzyme, appears to have a role in promoting breast cancer cell motility and invasiveness. In addition, increased LOX expression has been correlated with decreases in both metastases-free, and overall survival in breast cancer patients. With this background, we studied the ability of β-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), an irreversible inhibitor of LOX, to regulate the metastatic colonization potential of the human breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231. BAPN was administered daily to mice starting either 1 day prior, on the same day as, or 7 days after intracardiac injection of luciferase expressing MDA-MB-231-Luc2 cells. Development of metastases was monitored by in vivo bioluminescence imaging, and tumor-induced osteolysis was assessed by micro-computed tomography (μCT). We found that BAPN administration was able to reduce the frequency of metastases. Thus, when BAPN treatment was initiated the day before, or on the same day as the intra-cardiac injection of tumor cells, the number of metastases was decreased by 44%, and 27%, and whole-body photon emission rates (reflective of total tumor burden) were diminished by 78%, and 45%, respectively. In contrast, BAPN had no effect on the growth of established metastases. Our findings suggest that LOX activity is required during extravasation and/or initial tissue colonization by circulating MDA-MB-231 cells, lending support to the idea that LOX inhibition might be useful in metastasis prevention.
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11
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Horsch M, Recktenwald CV, Schädler S, Hrabé de Angelis M, Seliger B, Beckers J. Overexpressed vs mutated Kras in murine fibroblasts: a molecular phenotyping study. Br J Cancer 2009; 100:656-62. [PMID: 19190631 PMCID: PMC2653730 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6604882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Ras acts in signalling pathways regulating the activity of multiple cellular functions including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Amino-acid exchanges at position 12, 13, or 61 of the Kras gene convert the proto-oncogene into an activated oncogene. Until now, a direct comparison of genome-wide expression profiling studies of Kras overexpression and different Kras mutant forms in a single assay system has not been carried out. In our study, we focused on the direct comparison of global gene expression effects caused by mutations in codon 12 or 13 of the Kras gene and Kras overexpression in murine fibroblasts. We determined Kras cellular mRNA, Ras protein and activated Ras protein levels. Further, we compared our data to the proteome analysis of the same transfected cell lines. Both overexpression and mutations of Kras lead to common altered gene expression patterns. Only two genes, Lox and Col1a1, were reversely regulated in the Kras transfectants. They may contribute to the higher aggressiveness of the Kras codon 12 mutation in tumour progression. The functional annotation of differentially expressed genes revealed a high frequency of proteins involved in tumour growth and angiogenesis. These data further support the important role of these genes in tumour-associated angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Horsch
- Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Institute of Experimental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstrasse 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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12
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Giampuzzi M, Oleggini R, Albanese C, Pestell R, Di Donato A. beta-catenin signaling and regulation of cyclin D1 promoter in NRK-49F cells transformed by down-regulation of the tumor suppressor lysyl oxidase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2006; 1745:370-81. [PMID: 15946752 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2005.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2005] [Revised: 04/28/2005] [Accepted: 04/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase is the enzyme that is essential for collagen and elastin cross-linking. Previous investigations showed that lysyl oxidase is down-regulated in many human tumors and ras-transformed cells. Recently, we proved that antisense down-regulation of lysyl oxidase in NRK-49F cells induced phenotypic changes and oncogenic transformation, characterized by p21(ras) activation and beta-catenin/cyclin D1 up-regulation. In the present paper, we examined beta-catenin intracellular distribution and its association with E-cadherin. We observed an increased association between E-cadherin and beta-catenin in the lysyl-oxidase down-regulated cells during serum starvation. Moreover, we found that beta-catenin cytoplasmic and nuclear levels were increased, suggesting a failure of its down-regulation by the APC-GSK-3beta system, in particular the GSK-3beta phosphorylation of ser-33/37 and thr-41 of beta-catenin. Finally, we investigated the mechanisms leading to the observed cyclin D1 up-regulation. We showed that in the antisense lysyl oxidase cells the cyclin D1 promoter was activated through the LEF and the ATF/CRE sites in the proximal promoter. While the promoter activation through LEF is compatible with beta-catenin signaling, we investigated the possibility that the CRE-dependent activation might be linked to the down-regulation of lysyl oxidase. In fact, up-regulation of lysyl oxidase in a COS-7 cell model showed a significant diminution of the CREB protein binding to the cyclin D1 promoter, leading to a dramatic inhibition of its activity and a significant down-regulation of cyclin D1 protein level in vivo. Finally, our study describes some major anomalies occurring in lysyl oxidase down-regulated fibroblasts, related to beta-catenin signaling and cyclin D1 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monia Giampuzzi
- Laboratorio di Nefrologia, Istituto G. Gaslini, Largo G. Gaslini, 5, 16147 Genova, Italy
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13
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Abstract
Collagens are abundant proteins in higher organisms, and are formed by a complex biosynthetic pathway involving intracellular and extracellular post-translational modifications. Starting from simple soluble precursors, this interesting pathway produces insoluble functional fibrillar and non-fibrillar elements of the extracellular matrix. The present review highlights recent progress and new insights into biological regulation of extracellular procollagen processing, and some novel functions of byproducts of these extracellular enzymatic transformations. These findings underscore the notion that released propeptides and other proteolytic products of extracellular matrix proteins have important biological functions, and that structural proteins are multifunctional. An emerging concept is that a dynamic interplay exists between extracellular products and byproducts with cells that helps to maintain normal cellular phenotypes and tissue integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip C Trackman
- Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Division of Oral Biology, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA.
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14
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Molnar J, Ujfaludi Z, Fong SFT, Bollinger JA, Waro G, Fogelgren B, Dooley DM, Mink M, Csiszar K. Drosophila lysyl oxidases Dmloxl-1 and Dmloxl-2 are differentially expressed and the active DmLOXL-1 influences gene expression and development. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:22977-85. [PMID: 15811848 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m503006200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian lysyl oxidase (LOX) is essential for the catalysis of lysyl-derived cross-links in fibrillar collagens and elastin in the extracellular matrix and has also been implicated in cell motility, differentiation, and tumor cell invasion. The active LOX has been shown to translocate to the nuclei of smooth muscle cells and regulate chromatin structure and transcription. It is difficult to interpret the role of the LOX protein as it is co-expressed with other members of the LOX amine oxidase family in most mammalian cells. To investigate the function of the LOX proteins, we have characterized the Drosophila lysyl oxidases Dmloxl-1 and Dmloxl-2. We present the gene, domain structure, and expression pattern of Dmloxl-1 and Dmloxl-2 during development. In early development, only Dmloxl-1 was expressed, which allowed functional studies. We have expressed Dmloxl-1 in S2 cells and determined that it is a catalytically active enzyme, inhibited by beta-amino-proprionitrile (BAPN), a specific LOX inhibitor. We localized DmLOXL-1 in the nuclei in embryos and in adult salivary gland cells in the nuclei, cytoplasm, and cell surface, using immunostaining and a DmLOXL-1 antibody. To address the biological function of Dmloxl-1, we raised larvae under BAPN inhibitory conditions and over-expressed Dmloxl-1 in transgenic Drosophila. DmLOXL-1 inhibition resulted in developmental delay and a shift in sex ratio; over-expression in the w(m4) variegating strain increased drosopterin production, demonstrating euchromatinization. Our previous data on the transcriptional down-regulation of seven ribosomal genes and the glue gene under inhibitory conditions and the current results collectively support a nuclear role for Dmloxl-1 in euchromatinization and gene regulation.
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MESH Headings
- Active Transport, Cell Nucleus
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Aminopropionitrile/pharmacology
- Animals
- Animals, Genetically Modified
- Blotting, Northern
- Catalysis
- Cell Differentiation
- Cell Line
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Cell Movement
- Cell Nucleus/metabolism
- Chromatin/chemistry
- Chromatin/metabolism
- Chromosome Mapping
- Collagen/chemistry
- Cytoplasm/metabolism
- DNA Primers/chemistry
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- Down-Regulation
- Drosophila melanogaster
- Elastin/chemistry
- Euchromatin/metabolism
- Extracellular Matrix/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic
- Genome
- Immunohistochemistry
- Microscopy, Confocal
- Models, Genetic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Muscle, Smooth/cytology
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/biosynthesis
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/chemistry
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/chemistry
- Saliva/metabolism
- Salivary Glands/metabolism
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Transcription, Genetic
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Affiliation(s)
- Janos Molnar
- Cardiovascular Research Center, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, 96822, USA
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15
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Kim MS, Kim SS, Jung ST, Park JY, Yoo HW, Ko J, Csiszar K, Choi SY, Kim Y. Expression and Purification of Enzymatically Active Forms of the Human Lysyl Oxidase-like Protein 4. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:52071-4. [PMID: 14551188 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308856200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The lysyl oxidase-like protein 4 (LOXL4) is the latest member of the emerging family of lysyl oxidases, several of which were shown to function as copper-dependent amine oxidases catalyzing lysine-derived cross-links in extracellular matrix proteins. LOXL4 contains four scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domains in addition to the characteristic domains of the LOX family, including the copper-binding domain, the cytokine receptor-like domain, and the residues of the lysyl-tyrosyl quinone cofactor. In an effort to assess its amine oxidase activity, we expressed LOXL4 as recombinant forms attached with hexa-histidine residues at the carboxyl terminus by using an Escherichia coli expression system. The recombinant proteins were purified with nickel-chelating affinity chromatography and converted into enzymatically active forms by stepwise dialysis. The purified LOXL4 proteins showed beta-aminopropionitrile-inhibitable activity of 0.022-0.032 units/mg toward a nonpeptidyl substrate, benzylamine. These results indicate that LOXL4, with the four scavenger receptor cysteine rich domains, may also function as an active amine oxidase. Availability of the pure and active forms of LOXL4 will be significantly helpful in functional studies related to substrate specificity and crystal structure of this amine oxidase, which should provide significant insights into functional differences within the LOX family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moon Suk Kim
- Genome Research Center for Birth Defects and Genetic Diseases, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 138-736, Korea
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16
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Jung ST, Kim MS, Seo JY, Kim HC, Kim Y. Purification of enzymatically active human lysyl oxidase and lysyl oxidase-like protein from Escherichia coli inclusion bodies. Protein Expr Purif 2003; 31:240-6. [PMID: 14550642 DOI: 10.1016/s1046-5928(03)00217-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is an extracellular copper dependent enzyme catalyzing lysine-derived cross-links in extracellular matrix proteins. Recent molecular cloning has revealed the existence of a LOX family consisting of LOX and four lysyl oxidase-like proteins (LOXLs; LOXL, LOXL2, LOXL3, and LOXL4). Each member of the LOX family contains a copper-binding domain, residues for lysyl-tyrosyl quinone, and a cytokine receptor-like domain. Very recently, novel functions, such as tumor suppression, cellular senescence, and chemotaxis, have been attributed to this family of amine oxidases, but functional differences among the family members have yet to be determined. For efficient expression and purification, we cloned the cDNAs corresponding to proteolytically processed forms of LOX (LOX-p) and LOXL (LOXL-p1 and LOXL-p2) into a bacterial expression vector pET21a with six continuous histidine codons attached to the 3' of the gene. The recombinant proteins were purified with nickel-chelating affinity chromatography and converted into enzymatically active forms by stepwise dialysis in the presence of N-lauroylsarcosinate and Cu2+. The purified LOX-p, LOXL-p1, and LOXL-p2 proteins showed specific amine oxidase activity of 0.097, 0.054, and 0.150 U/mg, respectively, which was inhibited by beta-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), a specific inhibitor of LOX. Availability of these pure and active forms of LOX and LOXLs will be significantly helpful in functional studies related to substrate specificity and crystal structures of this family of amine oxidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Taek Jung
- Laboratory of Functional Proteomics, Samyang-Genex Biotechnology Research Institute, 63-2, Hwaam-Dong, Yusung-Gu, Daejeon City, Republic of Korea
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Giampuzzi M, Oleggini R, Di Donato A. Altered adhesion features and signal transduction in NRK-49F cells transformed by down-regulation of lysyl oxidase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1647:239-44. [PMID: 12686140 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-9639(03)00058-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) down-regulation induced an oncogenic phenotype in NRK-49F. This event was accompanied by a constitutive activation of ras oncogene and down-regulation of PDGF beta receptor, among other important phenotypic and molecular modifications. In the present paper we show that ras activation is not accompanied by a constitutive activation of the MAP kinases as expected. Surprisingly, even if MAPK-independent, ras activation was accompanied by a constitutive Ser(63) and Ser(73) phosphorylation of c-jun, a further downstream target of ras. Although rare, this ras alternative pathway has been described. Since ras alone is seldom able to trigger cell transformation and the transformed phenotype showed clearly an abnormal adhesion pattern, we investigated the main molecules involved in cell-cell adhesion. In fact, we found that beta-catenin was up-regulated, escaping the glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3 beta) control, through unclear mechanisms. Its nuclear accumulation was accompanied by an up-regulation of cyclin D1, as classically described in the activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin signal pathway. We believe that the resulting up-regulation of cyclin D1 acted in synergy with ras to induce the cell transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monia Giampuzzi
- Laboratorio di Nefrologia, Istituto G. Gaslini, Largo G. Gaslini, 5, 16147 Genova, Italy
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18
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Giampuzzi M, Oleggini R, Di Donato A. Demonstration of in vitro interaction between tumor suppressor lysyl oxidase and histones H1 and H2: definition of the regions involved. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1647:245-51. [PMID: 12686141 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-9639(03)00059-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is the enzyme that cross-links extracellular collagen and tropoelastin and is involved in tumor suppressor activity. Based on the existent homologies between lysine-rich regions of tropoelastin and the "lysine-rich" histone H1, we tested the possibility that H1 could be a new nuclear target. Our study shows that LOX could actually interact specifically not only with histone H1, but also with histone H2. Mechanisms and significance of these interactions are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monia Giampuzzi
- Laboratorio di Nefrologia, Istituto G. Gaslini, Largo G. Gaslini, 5, 16147 Genova, Italy
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19
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Jeay S, Pianetti S, Kagan HM, Sonenshein GE. Lysyl oxidase inhibits ras-mediated transformation by preventing activation of NF-kappa B. Mol Cell Biol 2003; 23:2251-63. [PMID: 12640111 PMCID: PMC150722 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.23.7.2251-2263.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LO), which catalyzes the oxidation of lysine residues, was previously shown to have anti-oncogenic activity on ras-transformed cells. Since oncogenic Ras mediates transformation, in part, through the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B), we tested here the effects of LO on NF-kappa B activity. Expression of LO in ras-transformed NIH 3T3 cells led to decreased NF-kappa B binding and activity, as well as the expression of the NF-kappa B target gene c-myc. Importantly, ectopic expression of LO led to a dramatic decrease in colony formation by ras-transformed NIH 3T3 cells, a finding comparable to the expression of the I kappa B alpha dominant-negative mutant, which could be rescued by p65/p50 NF-kappa B subunit expression. LO was unable to directly inhibit the activity of ectopically expressed p65 and c-Rel NF-kappa B subunits, suggesting that LO affected an upstream signaling pathway(s) induced by Ras. Consistent with this hypothesis, LO expression decreased both the rate of I kappa B alpha turnover and the activities of IKK alpha and IKK beta. Moreover, the ectopic expression of a constitutively active version of either kinase reversed the negative effects of LO. Ras can induce NF-kappa B via both the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and Raf/MEK pathways. LO potently downregulated the PI3K and Akt kinases, while partially inhibiting MEK kinase activity. Expression of a constitutively activated, myristylated Akt or PDK1 was able to counteract the effect of LO on NF-kappa B, whereas constitutively activated Raf was only partially effective. Importantly, LO blocked membrane localization of Akt and PDK1 in Ras-transformed cells. Overall, these results strongly argue that the anti-oncogenic effects of LO on ras-mediated transformation are due to its ability to inhibit signaling pathways that lead to activation of NF-kappa B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Jeay
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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20
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Kagan HM, Li W. Lysyl oxidase: properties, specificity, and biological roles inside and outside of the cell. J Cell Biochem 2003; 88:660-72. [PMID: 12577300 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 682] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LO) plays a critical role in the formation and repair of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by oxidizing lysine residues in elastin and collagen, thereby initiating the formation of covalent crosslinkages which stabilize these fibrous proteins. Its catalytic activity depends upon both its copper cofactor and a unique carbonyl cofactor and has been shown to extend to a variety of basic globular proteins, including histone H1. Although the three-dimensional structure of LO has yet to be determined, the present treatise offers hypotheses based upon its primary sequence, which may underlie the prominent electrostatic component of its unusual substrate specificity as well as the catalysis-suppressing function of the propeptide domain of prolysyl oxidase. Recent studies have demonstrated that LO appears to function within the cell in a manner, which strongly modifies cellular activity. Newly discovered LO-like proteins also likely play unique roles in biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert M Kagan
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA.
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21
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Li W, Nugent MA, Zhao Y, Chau AN, Li SJ, Chou IN, Liu G, Kagan HM. Lysyl oxidase oxidizes basic fibroblast growth factor and inactivates its mitogenic potential. J Cell Biochem 2003; 88:152-64. [PMID: 12461785 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LO) plays a central role in the crosslinking of collagen and elastin in the extracellular matrix. Here we demonstrate that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), a polypeptide which regulates proliferation, differentiation, and migration of a variety of cell types, is a substrate of LO. The oxidation of lysine residues in bFGF by LO resulted in the covalent crosslinking of bFGF monomers to form dimers and higher order oligomers and dramatically altered its biological properties. Both the mitogenic potential and the nuclear localization of bFGF were markedly inhibited in the Swiss 3T3 cells upon its oxidation by LO. NIH 3T3 IgBNM 6-1 cells (6-1 cells) overexpress bFGF which participates in an autocrine mechanism accounting for the transformation of these cells into a tumorigenic state. Exposure of the 6-1 cells to nanomolar concentrations of LO in culture oxidized lysine and generated crosslinkages in bFGF within the cell and markedly reduced proliferative rates. The lack of LO expression has been correlated with hyperproliferative cell growth, while this enzyme has been identified as a suppressor of ras-induced tumorigenesis. The present results illustrate a mechanism by which LO can depress normal and transformed cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wande Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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22
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Smith-Mungo L, Kagan HM. PKC-MEK-MAPK-dependent signal transduction pathway mediates the stimulation of lysyl oxidase expression by serum and PDGF in rat aortic smooth muscle cells. J Cell Biochem 2002; 85:775-84. [PMID: 11968017 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LO) plays a critical role in the stabilization and insolubilization of fibrous structural proteins of the extracellular matrix and has been implicated in the suppression of Ras-induced tumorigenesis. Several prior reports demonstrate that the expression of this catalyst is strongly influenced by a variety of effectors of cell function and is responsive to the growth state of fibrogenic cells. Using specific inhibitors of components of signal transduction pathways, the present study reveals that a PKC-MEK-MAPK-dependent pathway is critical to the enhanced expression of the LO gene in response to variations in the levels of the serum component of the growth medium and in response to platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). PDGF is shown to be the major component of fetal bovine serum, which stimulates the activity of a LO promoter construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Smith-Mungo
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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23
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Omori K, Fujiseki Y, Omori K, Suzukawa J, Inagaki C. Regulation of the expression of lysyl oxidase mRNA in cultured rabbit retinal pigment epithelium cells. Matrix Biol 2002; 21:337-48. [PMID: 12128071 DOI: 10.1016/s0945-053x(02)00013-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase, an extracellular amine oxidase, controls the maturation of collagen and elastin. We examined the regulation of lysyl oxidase mRNA in cultured rabbit retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells in relation to the changes in subretinal fluid transport and phenotype of RPE cells. The level of the mRNA in cells grown on microporous membranes was markedly increased by application of hyperosmotic mannitol solution on the apical side (191% of control), implying that RPE cells express more lysyl oxidase in the condition which may cause the accumulation of subretinal fluid. Platelet-derived growth factor increased the mRNA level in subconfluent cells in culture (137% of control) and basic fibroblast growth factor decreased it (79% of control). In addition, exposure of cells to retinoic acid alone or in combination with dibutyryl cAMP for 22 days markedly decreased the level of lysyl oxidase mRNA (52 or 35% of control) while increasing the level of mRNA of N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAG), a marker enzyme for lysosomes (162 or 142% of control). Moreover, the level of lysyl oxidase mRNA in cells grown on microporous membranes was lower than that in cells grown on plastic dishes, while the level of NAG mRNA in the former cells was higher than that in the latter. Taken together, the expression of lysyl oxidase seemed to increase during proliferation of RPE cells and decrease toward differentiation. beta-Aminopropionitrile, an inhibitor of lysyl oxidase, significantly inhibited the contraction of collagen gels by fetal calf serum, suggesting that lysyl oxidase may be involved in pathogenesis caused by RPE cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoko Omori
- Department of Pharmacology, Kansai Medical University, 10-15 Fumizono-cho, Moriguchi, 570-8506, Osaka, Japan.
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24
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Dove JE, Klinman JP. Trihydroxyphenylalanine quinone (TPQ) from copper amine oxidases and lysyl tyrosylquinone (LTQ) from lysyl oxidase. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY 2002; 58:141-74. [PMID: 11665487 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3233(01)58004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J E Dove
- Departments of Chemistry and Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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25
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Csiszar K, Fong SFT, Ujfalusi A, Krawetz SA, Salvati EP, Mackenzie JW, Boyd CD. Somatic mutations of the lysyl oxidase gene on chromosome 5q23.1 in colorectal tumors. Int J Cancer 2002; 97:636-42. [PMID: 11807790 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.10035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX), a copper-dependent amine oxidase, has been implicated in tumor suppression and cell growth regulation. The chromosomal locus of LOX, 5q23, is affected by loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in colon cancer, suggesting that the LOX gene could be affected by LOH and consequently, loss or reduction of LOX function contribute to the tumorigenic process. Identification of microsatellite markers within the LOX locus has allowed us to map the LOX gene within the 5q23.1 region. Analysis of this locus and flanking loci in matched tumor and blood DNA samples from a panel of colorectal cancer patients, demonstrated that 38% (16/42) of informative samples were affected by LOH or allelic imbalance. Furthermore, 75% (6/8) of these tumor samples were shown to have significantly reduced LOX mRNA levels. Similar reduction in LOX levels were detected in a panel of matched normal colon and colon tumor samples. Tumor samples demonstrating LOH by RFLP, were subject to mutational analysis, including RT-PCR, exonic deletion detection by PCR, cDNA and genomic DNA sequencing, and were found to have a spectrum of alterations and mutations affecting the LOX gene. These results confirm that loss or reduction of LOX function during tumor development is a direct consequence of somatic mutations and is associated with colon tumor pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Csiszar
- Pacific Biomedical Research Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
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26
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Csiszar K. Lysyl oxidases: a novel multifunctional amine oxidase family. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 70:1-32. [PMID: 11642359 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(01)70012-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 366] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX), a copper-containing amine oxidase, belongs to a heterogeneous family of enzymes that oxidize primary amine substrates to reactive aldehydes. LOX has been traditionally known for one function, the extracellular catalysis of lysine-derived cross-links in fibrillar collagens and elastin. More recently, diverse roles have been attributed to lysyl oxidase and these novel activities cover a spectrum of diverse biological functions such as developmental regulation, tumor suppression, cell motility, and cellular senescence. Lysyl oxidase has also been shown to have both intracellular and intranuclear locations. The multifunctional properties of lysyl oxidase (LOX) and our recent discovery of three novel members of this amine oxidase family, LOX-like (LOXL), LOXL2, and LOXL3, indicate the possibility that these varied functions are performed in both intracellular and extracellular environments by individual novel members of the LOX amine-oxidase family. Structural similarities of the highly conserved copper-binding and lysyl-tyrosylquinone cofactor sites among the LOX and LOX-like proteins may result in similar amine oxidase activities. However, specific novel functions, such as a potential role in cell adhesion and cell growth control, will be determined by other, conserved domains such as the cytokine receptor-like domain that is shared by all LOXs and by multiple scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domains present in LOXL2 and LOXL3. Furthermore, these functions may be carried out in a temporally and spatially regulated fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Csiszar
- The Pacific Biomedical Research Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu 96822, USA
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27
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Borel A, Eichenberger D, Farjanel J, Kessler E, Gleyzal C, Hulmes DJ, Sommer P, Font B. Lysyl oxidase-like protein from bovine aorta. Isolation and maturation to an active form by bone morphogenetic protein-1. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:48944-9. [PMID: 11684696 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109499200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently several cDNAs have been described encoding lysyl oxidase-like proteins. Their deduced amino acid sequences are characterized by a strong similarity in the C-terminal region, corresponding to the lysyl oxidase family catalytic domain, and by marked differences in the N-terminal regions. Different biological functions have been described for lysyl oxidases in addition to their traditionally assumed cross-linking role. To answer the question of whether these different functions are carried out by different lysyl oxidases, purified and active forms of these enzymes are required. At present only the classical form of lysyl oxidase has been purified and characterized. The purpose of this study was to isolate and characterize the lysyl oxidase-like protein. In view of the strong sequence homology with the C-terminal domain of other lysyl oxidases, we chose to purify the protein from bovine aorta using antibodies specific to the N-terminal domain of the proenzyme. We have isolated a 56-kDa protein identified by amino acid sequencing as the bovine lysyl oxidase-like precursor, which is cleaved at the Arg-Arg-Arg sequence at positions 89-91 by a furin-like activity, as revealed after deblocking of the N-terminal residue. The immunopurified protein was largely inactive, but further processing in vitro by bone morphogenetic protein-1 led to an enzyme that was active on elastin and collagen substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Borel
- Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, 69367 Lyon Cedex 07, France
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Asuncion L, Fogelgren B, Fong KS, Fong SF, Kim Y, Csiszar K. A novel human lysyl oxidase-like gene (LOXL4) on chromosome 10q24 has an altered scavenger receptor cysteine rich domain. Matrix Biol 2001; 20:487-91. [PMID: 11691588 DOI: 10.1016/s0945-053x(01)00161-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We have identified a novel 14-exon human lysyl oxidase-like gene, LOXL4, on chromosome 10q24. The cDNA and derived amino acid sequence of LOXL4 demonstrates a conserved C-terminal region including the characteristic copper-binding site, lysyl and tyrosyl residues and a cytokine receptor-like domain. One of the four N-terminal SRCR domains contains a 13 amino acid insertion encoded by a short exon not present within the closely homologous LOXL2 and LOXL3 genes. The 3.5-kb LOXL4 mRNA is present in pancreas and testis and at lower levels in several other tissues. Fibroblasts, smooth muscle and osteosarcoma (HOS) cells express LOXL4. No expression was detected in HCT-116 and DLD-1 colon, MCF-7 breast and DU-145 prostate cancer cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Asuncion
- Pacific Biomedical Research Center, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Rd., Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
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29
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Giampuzzi M, Botti G, Cilli M, Gusmano R, Borel A, Sommer P, Di Donato A. Down-regulation of lysyl oxidase-induced tumorigenic transformation in NRK-49F cells characterized by constitutive activation of ras proto-oncogene. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:29226-32. [PMID: 11323426 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m101695200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Several investigations have suggested a putative tumor suppressor role for lysyl oxidase because it is down-regulated in many human and oncogene-induced tumors. To address this issue we down-regulated the enzyme in normal rat kidney fibroblasts by stable transfection of its cDNA in an antisense orientation. The selected clones revealed an absence of lysyl oxidase and dramatic phenotypic changes, interpretable as signs of transformation. The antisense lysyl oxidase clones showed, indeed, loose attachment to the plate and anchorage-independent growth and were highly tumorigenic in nude mice. Moreover, we found an impaired response of the PDGF and IGF-1 receptors to their ligands. In particular, the transformed cells showed a down-regulation of both PDGF receptors and expressed the 105-kDa isoform of the IGF-1 beta receptor, which was not present in the normal control cells. The lack of response to PDGF-BB has been described as a feature of many ras-transformed phenotypes. Therefore, we looked at the status of the p21(ras). Indeed, we found a significantly higher level of active p21(ras) both during steady-state growth and prolonged starvation. Our data reveal new evidence for a tumor suppressor activity of lysyl oxidase, highlighting its particular role in controlling Ras activation and growth factor dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Giampuzzi
- Department of Nephrology, Istituto G. Gaslini, Largo G. Gaslini, 5, 16147 Genova, Italy
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30
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Jourdan-Le Saux C, Tomsche A, Ujfalusi A, Jia L, Csiszar K. Central nervous system, uterus, heart, and leukocyte expression of the LOXL3 gene, encoding a novel lysyl oxidase-like protein. Genomics 2001; 74:211-8. [PMID: 11386757 DOI: 10.1006/geno.2001.6545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A BLASTN search using the mouse lor-2 cDNA identified three overlapping ESTs (AI752772, AA852888, and R55706) in the GenBank database. These expressed sequence tags were assembled into a contig of 3121 nucleotides with an open reading frame of 2262 bp. The encoded putative polypeptide of 754 amino acids presented all structural characteristics of the lysyl oxidase (LOX) enzyme family, a copper-binding site with four histidyl residues, the lysyl and tyrosyl residues known to be involved in LOX enzyme in the formation of the quinone cofactor and surrounding sequences, and the cytokine receptor-like domain. In addition, four scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domains were found in the N-terminal region of the protein. The gene encoding this new cDNA, which we have referred to as human lysyl oxidase-like 3 (humanLOXL3), has been mapped to chromosome 2p13.3, overlapping at its 3' end the HtrA2 serine protease gene. The structure of the humanLOXL3 gene was deduced from the BAC clone bac91a19 sequence and contained 14 exons. The expression pattern of this new member of the LOX gene family appears to be different from that of the LOX and LOX-like genes, as the central nervous system, neurons, and also leukocytes expressed humanLOXL3. A BLASTN search of the human EST database indicated the presence of ESTs, corresponding to alternative splice variants of LOXL3, that lacked exon 5 and exon 8. The putative resulting protein retained the region encoding the structural and functional elements of the amine oxidase but the second and fourth SRCR domains were truncated and the potential BMP-1 cleavage site was not present. The presence of domains unrelated to the traditional amine oxidase activity is a strong indication that humanLOXL3 might fulfill other functions in addition to intrinsic enzyme activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jourdan-Le Saux
- Pacific Biomedical Research Center, University of Hawaii, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96822
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31
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Schwartz B, Klinman JP. Mechanisms of biosynthesis of protein-derived redox cofactors. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2001; 61:219-39. [PMID: 11153267 DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(01)61007-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Prior to 1990, redox cofactors were widely believed to be small molecule, dissociable compounds. In the past 10 years, however, four novel redox cofactors have been discovered, each of which is derived from posttranslational modification of specific amino acids within their cognate enzymes. These include topa quinone, found in copper amine oxidases, lysine tyrosyl quinone, found in lysyl oxidase, tryptophan tryptophylquinone, found in methylamine dehydrogenase, and the cysteine-cross-linked tyrosine found in galactose oxidase. The processes by which these cofactors are formed, called biogenesis, is currently a major focus of mechanistic work in this field. In this review, the latest progress toward elucidating the various biogenesis mechanisms is discussed, along with possible linkages between the chemistries involved in catalysis and biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Schwartz
- Departments of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94704, USA
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Mäki JM, Kivirikko KI. Cloning and characterization of a fourth human lysyl oxidase isoenzyme. Biochem J 2001; 355:381-7. [PMID: 11284725 PMCID: PMC1221749 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3550381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We report here the complete cDNA sequence and exon-intron organization of the human lysyl oxidase-like (LOXL)3 gene, a new member of the lysyl oxidase (LO) gene family. The predicted polypeptide is 753 amino acids in length, including a signal peptide of 25 residues. The C-terminal region, residues 529-729, contains a LO domain similar to those in the LOX (the first characterized LO isoenzyme), LOXL and LOXL2 polypeptides. It possesses the putative copper binding sequence, and the lysine and tyrosine residues that form the lysyltyrosyl quinone cofactor. The N-terminal region, which is similar to that in LOXL2 but not those in LOX and LOXL, contains four subregions similar to scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domains and a putative nuclear localization signal. Recombinant LOXL3, expressed in HT-1080 cells, was secreted into the culture medium but was not detected by immunofluorescence staining in nuclei. The LOXL3 mRNA is 3.1 kb in size and is expressed in many tissues, the highest levels among the tissues studied being seen in the placenta, heart, ovary, testis, small intestine and spleen.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Mäki
- Collagen Research Unit, Biocenter and Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Oulu, PO. BOX 5000, FIN-90014 Oulu, Finland
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Giampuzzi M, Botti G, Di Duca M, Arata L, Ghiggeri G, Gusmano R, Ravazzolo R, Di Donato A. Lysyl oxidase activates the transcription activity of human collagene III promoter. Possible involvement of Ku antigen. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:36341-9. [PMID: 10942761 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m003362200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase is an extracellular enzyme that controls the maturation of collagen and elastin. Lysyl oxidase and collagen III often show similar expression patterns in fibrotic tissues. Therefore, we investigated the influence of lysyl oxidase overexpression on the promoter activity of human COL3A1 gene. Our results showed that when COS-7 cells overexpressed the mature form of lysyl oxidase, the activity of the human COL3A1 promoter was increased up to an average of 12 times when tested by luciferase reporter assay. The effect was specific, because other promoters were not affected. Moreover, lysyl oxidase effect was abolished by beta-aminopropionitrile, a specific inhibitor of its catalytic activity. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed a binding activity in the region from -101 to -77 that was significantly increased by lysyl oxidase overexpression. The binding was specifically competed by the cold probe, and the mutagenesis of this region abolished both the binding activity in gel retardation and lysyl oxidase stimulation of COL3A1 promoter in transfection experiments. We identified the binding activity as Ku antigen in its two components: Ku80 and Ku70. This study suggests a new coordinated mechanism by which lysyl oxidase might control the development of fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Giampuzzi
- Department of Nephrology, Gaslini Children's Hospital, Genova, Italy
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Tchaparian EH, Uriu-Adams JY, Keen CL, Mitchell AE, Rucker RB. Lysyl oxidase and P-ATPase-7A expression during embryonic development in the rat. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 379:71-7. [PMID: 10864443 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2000.1842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase activity is critical for the assembly and cross-linking of extracellular matrix proteins, such as collagen and elastin. Moreover, lysyl oxidase activity is sensitive to changes in copper status and genetic perturbations in copper transport, e.g., mutations in the P-type ATPase gene, ATP7A, associated with cellular copper transport. Lysyl oxidase may also serve as a vehicle for copper transport from extracellular matrix cells. Herein, we demonstrate that sufficient lysyl oxidase functional activity is present in the rat embryo at gestation day (GD) 9 to be detected in conventional enzyme assays. Estimation of embryonic lysyl oxidase functional activity, however, required partial purification in order to remove inhibitors. From GD 9 to GD 15, lysyl oxidase activity was relatively constant when expressed per unit of protein or DNA. In contrast, the steady-state levels of lysyl oxidase and ATP7A mRNA, measured by RT-PCR and expressed relative to total RNA and cyclophilin mRNA, increased approximately fourfold from GD 9 to 15. The pattern of temporal expression for ATP7A was consistent with its possible role in copper delivery to lysyl oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- E H Tchaparian
- Department of Nutrition, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616-8669, USA
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Jourdan-Le Saux C, Le Saux O, Gleyzal C, Sommer P, Csiszar K. The mouse lysyl oxidase-like 2 gene (mLOXL2) maps to chromosome 14 and is highly expressed in skin, lung and thymus. Matrix Biol 2000; 19:179-83. [PMID: 10842102 DOI: 10.1016/s0945-053x(00)00061-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The predicted amino acid sequence derived from a mouse expressed sequence tag (EST) contig contained two domains that are highly conserved among members of the lysyl oxidase gene family: a copper binding-site with four histidines and a catalytic domain that includes a tryptophan residue. This new cDNA sequence showed the highest level of sequence homology with the human loxl2 cDNA and suggested that it encoded the mouse equivalent of hLOXL2. The mLOXL2 gene was mapped to chromosome 14 by radiation hybrid analysis. The mLOXL2 locus was tightly linked with a LOD score over 9 to the marker D14Mit32. The mLOXL2 gene is expressed as a 4-kb mRNA in almost all tissues analyzed, with highest levels of mRNA in skin, lung and thymus.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jourdan-Le Saux
- Pacific Biomedical Research Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
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Rucker RB, Rucker BR, Mitchell AE, Cui CT, Clegg M, Kosonen T, Uriu-Adams JY, Tchaparian EH, Fishman M, Keen CL. Activation of chick tendon lysyl oxidase in response to dietary copper. J Nutr 1999; 129:2143-6. [PMID: 10573541 DOI: 10.1093/jn/129.12.2143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (EC 1.4.3.13), a cuproenzyme, can account for 10-30% of the copper present in connective tissue. Herein, we assess the extent to which tissue copper concentrations and lysyl oxidase activity are related because the functional activity of lysyl oxidase and the copper content of chick tendon are both related to dietary copper intake. Chicks (1-d old) were fed diets (basal copper concentration, 0.4 microg/g diet) to which copper was added from 0 to 16 microg/g diet. Liver and plasma copper levels tended to normalize in chickens that consumed from 1 to 4 microg copper/g of diet, whereas tendon copper concentrations suggested an unusual accumulation of copper in chickens that consumed 16 microg copper/g diet. The molecular weight of lysyl oxidase was also estimated using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (MALDI/TOF/MS). A novel aspect of these measurements was estimation of protein mass directly from the surface of chick tendons and aortae. Whether copper deficiency (0 added copper) or copper supplementation (16 microg copper/g of diet) caused changes in the molecular weight of protein(s) in tendon corresponding to lysyl oxidase was addressed. The average molecular weight of the peak corresponding to lysyl oxidase in tendon and aorta from copper-deficient birds was 28,386 Da +/- 86, whereas the average molecular weight of corresponding protein in tendon from copper-supplemented birds was 28,639 Da +/- 122. We propose that the shift in molecular weight is due in part to copper binding and the formation of lysyl tyrosyl quinone, the cofactor at the active site of lysyl oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Rucker
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Jourdan-Le Saux C, Tronecker H, Bogic L, Bryant-Greenwood GD, Boyd CD, Csiszar K. The LOXL2 gene encodes a new lysyl oxidase-like protein and is expressed at high levels in reproductive tissues. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:12939-44. [PMID: 10212285 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.18.12939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We have reported in this paper the complete cDNA sequence, gene structure, and tissue-specific expression of LOXL2, a new amine oxidase and a member of an emerging family of human lysyl oxidases. The predicted amino acid sequence, from several overlapping cDNA clones isolated from placenta and spleen cDNA libraries, shared extensive sequence homology with the conserved copper-binding and catalytic domains of both lysyl oxidase (LOX) and the lysyl oxidase-like (LOXL) protein. These conserved domains are encoded by five consecutive exons within the LOX, LOXL, and LOXL2 genes that also maintained exon-intron structure conservation. In contrast, six exons encoding the amino-terminal domains diverged both in sequence and structure. Exon 1 of the LOXL2 gene does not encode a signal sequence that is present in LOX and LOXL, suggesting a different processing and intracellular localization for this new protein. Expression of the LOXL2 gene was detected in almost all tissues with the highest steady state mRNA levels in the reproductive tissues, placenta, uterus and prostate. In situ hybridization identified placental syncytial and cytotrophoblasts responsible for the synthesis of LOXL2 mRNA and demonstrated a spatial and temporal expression pattern unique to the LOXL2 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jourdan-Le Saux
- Pacific Biomedical Research Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA
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