1
|
Pham AC, Holstein SA, Borgstahl GE. Structural Insight into Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase (GGDPS) for Cancer Therapy. Mol Cancer Ther 2024; 23:14-23. [PMID: 37756579 PMCID: PMC10762340 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-23-0358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS), the source of the isoprenoid donor in protein geranylgeranylation reactions, has become an attractive target for anticancer therapy due to the reliance of cancers on geranylgeranylated proteins. Current GGDPS inhibitor development focuses on optimizing the drug-target enzyme interactions of nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate-based drugs. To advance GGDPS inhibitor development, understanding the enzyme structure, active site, and ligand/product interactions is essential. Here we provide a comprehensive structure-focused review of GGDPS. We reviewed available yeast and human GGDPS structures and then used AlphaFold modeling to complete unsolved structural aspects of these models. We delineate the elements of higher-order structure formation, product-substrate binding, the electrostatic surface, and small-molecule inhibitor binding. With the rise of structure-based drug design, the information provided here will serve as a valuable tool for rationally optimizing inhibitor selectivity and effectiveness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C. Pham
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Sarah A. Holstein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Gloria E.O. Borgstahl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
- The Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ducker C, French S, Pathak M, Taylor H, Sainter A, Askem W, Dreveny I, Santana AEG, Pickett JA, Oldham NJ. Characterisation of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase from the sandfly Lutzomyia longipalpis. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 161:104001. [PMID: 37619821 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2023.104001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a debilitating and often fatal neglected tropical disease. Males from sub-populations of the Leishmania-harbouring sandfly, Lutzomyia longipalpis, produce the diterpene sex and aggregation pheromone, sobralene, for which geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) is the likely isoprenoid precursor. We have identified a GGPP synthase (lzGGPPS) from L. longipalpis, which was recombinantly expressed in bacteria and purified for functional and kinetic analysis. In vitro enzymatic assays using LC-MS showed that lzGGPPS is an active enzyme, capable of converting substrates dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), (E)-geranyl diphosphate (GPP), (E,E)-farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) with co-substrate isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) into (E,E,E)-GGPP, while (Z,E)-FPP was also accepted with low efficacy. Comparison of metal cofactors for lzGGPPS highlighted Mg2+ as most efficient, giving increased GGPP output when compared against other divalent metal ions tested. In line with previously characterised GGPPS enzymes, GGPP acted as an inhibitor of lzGGPPS activity. The molecular weight in solution of lzGGPPS was determined to be ∼221 kDa by analytical SEC, suggesting a hexameric assembly, as seen in the human enzyme, and representing the first assessment of GGPPS quaternary structure in insects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Ducker
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Stanley French
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Monika Pathak
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Harry Taylor
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Adam Sainter
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - William Askem
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Ingrid Dreveny
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | | | - John A Pickett
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Pl, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Neil J Oldham
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Muehlebach ME, Holstein SA. Geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase: Role in human health, disease and potential therapeutic target. Clin Transl Med 2023; 13:e1167. [PMID: 36650113 PMCID: PMC9845123 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.1167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS), an enzyme in the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway, is responsible for the production of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). GGPP serves as a substrate for the post-translational modification (geranylgeranylation) of proteins, including those belonging to the Ras superfamily of small GTPases. These proteins play key roles in signalling pathways, cytoskeletal regulation and intracellular transport, and in the absence of the prenylation modification, cannot properly localise and function. Aberrant expression of GGDPS has been implicated in various human pathologies, including liver disease, type 2 diabetes, pulmonary disease and malignancy. Thus, this enzyme is of particular interest from a therapeutic perspective. Here, we review the physiological function of GGDPS as well as its role in pathophysiological processes. We discuss the current GGDPS inhibitors under development and the therapeutic implications of targeting this enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Molly E. Muehlebach
- Cancer Research Doctoral ProgramUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNebraskaUSA
| | - Sarah A. Holstein
- Department of Internal MedicineUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNebraskaUSA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Schwarz PN, Roller L, Kulik A, Wohlleben W, Stegmann E. Engineering metabolic pathways in Amycolatopsis japonicum for the optimization of the precursor supply for heterologous brasilicardin congeners production. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2018; 3:56-63. [PMID: 29911199 PMCID: PMC5884276 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The isoprenoid brasilicardin A is a promising immunosuppressant compound with a unique mode of action, high potency and reduced toxicity compared to today's standard drugs. However, production of brasilicardin has been hampered since the producer strain Nocardia terpenica IFM0406 synthesizes brasilicardin in only low amounts and is a biosafety level 2 organism. Previously, we were able to heterologously express the brasilicardin gene cluster in the nocardioform actinomycete Amycolatopsis japonicum. Four brasilicardin congeners, intermediates of the BraA biosynthesis, were produced. Since chemical synthesis of the brasilicardin core structure has remained elusive we intended to produce high amounts of the brasilicardin backbone for semi synthesis and derivatization. Therefore, we used a metabolic engineering approach to increase heterologous production of brasilicardin in A. japonicum. Simultaneous heterologous expression of genes encoding the MVA pathway and expression of diterpenoid specific prenyltransferases were used to increase the provision of the isoprenoid precursor isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and to channel the precursor into the direction of diterpenoid biosynthesis. Both approaches contributed to an elevated heterologous production of the brasilicardin backbone, which can now be used as a starting point for semi synthesis of new brasilicardin congeners with better properties.
Collapse
Key Words
- 3HBA, 3-hydroxy-benzoate
- Aact, acetoacetyl CoA thiolase
- BraA, brasilicardin A
- BraB, brasilicardin B
- BraC, brasilicardin C
- BraC-agl, brasilicardin C aglycon
- BraD, brasilicardin D
- BraD-agl, brasilicardin D aglycon
- DMAPP, dimethylallyl diphosphate
- FPP, farnesyl diphosphate
- Fpps, farnesyl diphosphate synthase
- GGPP, geranylgeranyl diphosphate
- GPP, geranyl diphosphate
- Ggpps, geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase
- GlcNAc, N-acetylglucosamine
- Gpps, geranyl diphosphate synthase
- IPP, isopentenyl diphosphate
- Idi, isopentenyl diphosphate synthase
- Isoprenoids
- MEP, Methylerythritol 4-phosphate
- MVA, mevalonate
- Mevalonate pathway
- Norcardia terpenica IFM0406
- Prenyltransferases
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul N Schwarz
- Microbiology/Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Luisa Roller
- Microbiology/Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Kulik
- Microbiology/Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wohlleben
- Microbiology/Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Evi Stegmann
- Microbiology/Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Allen C, Kortagere S, Tong H, Matthiesen RA, Metzger JI, Wiemer DF, Holstein SA. Olefin Isomers of a Triazole Bisphosphonate Synergistically Inhibit Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase. Mol Pharmacol 2017; 91:229-236. [PMID: 28057800 DOI: 10.1124/mol.116.107326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The isoprenoid donor for protein geranylgeranylation reactions, geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP), is the product of the enzyme GGDP synthase (GGDPS) that condenses farnesyl diphosphate (FDP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate. GGDPS inhibition is of interest from a therapeutic perspective for multiple myeloma because we have shown that targeting Rab GTPase geranylgeranylation impairs monoclonal protein trafficking, leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis. We reported a series of triazole bisphosphonate GGDPS inhibitors, of which the most potent was a 3:1 mixture of homogeranyl (HG) and homoneryl (HN) isomers. Here we determined the activity of the individual olefin isomers. Enzymatic and cellular assays revealed that although HN is approximately threefold more potent than HG, HN is not more potent than the original mixture. Studies in which cells were treated with varying concentrations of each isomer alone and in different combinations revealed that the two isomers potentiate the induced-inhibition of protein geranylgeranylation when used in a 3:1 HG:HN combination. A synergistic interaction was observed between the two isomers in the GGDPS enzyme assay. These results suggested that the two isomers bind simultaneously to the enzyme but within different domains. Computational modeling studies revealed that HN is preferred at the FDP site, that HG is preferred at the GGDP site, and that both isomers may bind to the enzyme simultaneously. These studies are the first to report a set of olefin isomers that synergistically inhibit GGDPS, thus establishing a new paradigm for the future development of GGDPS inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Allen
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| | - Sandhya Kortagere
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| | - Huaxiang Tong
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| | - Robert A Matthiesen
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| | - Joseph I Metzger
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| | - David F Wiemer
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| | - Sarah A Holstein
- Department of Medicine, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York (C.A.); Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (S.K.); Penn State Cancer Institute, Hershey, Pennsylvania (H.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (R.A.M., J.I.M., D.F.W.); and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (S.A.H.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
|
7
|
Frontalin pheromone biosynthesis in the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, and the role of isoprenyl diphosphate synthases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:18838-43. [PMID: 24167290 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1316498110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) is the most destructive pest of western North American pine forests. Adult males produce frontalin, an eight-carbon antiaggregation pheromone, via the mevalonate pathway, as part of several pheromones that initiate and modulate the mass attack of host trees. Frontalin acts as a pheromone, attractant, or kairomone in most Dendroctonus species, other insects, and even elephants. 6-Methylhept-6-en-2-one, a frontalin precursor, is hypothesized to originate from 10-carbon geranyl diphosphate (GPP), 15-carbon farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), or 20-carbon geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) via a dioxygenase- or cytochrome P450-mediated carbon-carbon bond cleavage. To investigate the role of isoprenyl diphosphate synthases in pheromone biosynthesis, we characterized a bifunctional GPP/FPP synthase and a GGPP synthase in the mountain pine beetle. The ratio of GPP to FPP produced by the GPP/FPP synthase was highly dependent on the ratio of the substrates isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate used in the assay. Transcript levels in various tissues and life stages suggested that GGPP rather than GPP or FPP is used as a precursor to frontalin. Reduction of transcript levels by RNA interference of the isoprenyl diphosphate synthases identified GGPP synthase as having the largest effect on frontalin production, suggesting that frontalin is derived from a 20-carbon isoprenoid precursor rather than from the 10- or 15-carbon precursors.
Collapse
|
8
|
Barbar A, Couture M, Sen SE, Béliveau C, Nisole A, Bipfubusa M, Cusson M. Cloning, expression and characterization of an insect geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase from Choristoneura fumiferana. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 43:947-958. [PMID: 23907071 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 07/20/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS) catalyzes the condensation of the non-allylic diphosphate, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP; C5), with allylic diphosphates to generate the C20 prenyl chain (GGPP) used for protein prenylation and diterpenoid biosynthesis. Here, we cloned the cDNA of a GGPPS from the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana, and characterized the corresponding recombinant protein (rCfGGPPS). As shown for other type-III GGPPSs, rCfGGPPS preferred farnesyl diphosphate (FPP; C15) over other allylic substrates for coupling with IPP. Unexpectedly, rCfGGPPS displayed inhibition by its FPP substrate at low IPP concentration, suggesting the existence of a mechanism that may regulate intracellular FPP pools. rCfGGPPS was also inhibited by its product, GGPP, in a competitive manner with respect to FPP, as reported for human and bovine brain GGPPSs. A homology model of CfGGPPS was prepared and compared to human and yeast GGPPSs. Consistent with its enzymological properties, CfGGPPS displayed a larger active site cavity that can accommodate the binding of FPP and GGPP in the region normally occupied by IPP and the allylic isoprenoid tail, and the binding of GGPP in an alternate orientation seen for GGPP binding to the human protein. To begin exploring the role of CfGGPPS in protein prenylation, its transcripts were quantified by qPCR in whole insects, along with those of other genes involved in this pathway. CfGGPPS was expressed throughout insect development and the abundance of its transcripts covaried with that of other prenylation-related genes. Our qPCR results suggest that geranylgeranylation is the predominant form of prenylation in whole C. fumiferana.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aline Barbar
- Département de biochimie, de microbiologie et de bio-informatique, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du P.E.P.S., C.P. 10380, Succ. Sainte-Foy, Québec, QC G1V 4C7, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Characterization of potential drug targets farnesyl diphosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase in Schistosoma mansoni. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:5969-76. [PMID: 24041901 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00699-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis affects over 200 million people worldwide, with over 200,000 deaths annually. Currently, praziquantel is the only drug available against schistosomiasis. We report here that Schistosoma mansoni farnesyl diphosphate synthase (SmFPPS) and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (SmGGPPS) are potential drug targets for the treatment of schistosomiasis. We expressed active, recombinant SmFPPS and SmGGPPS for subsequent kinetic characterization and testing against a variety of bisphosphonate inhibitors. Recombinant SmFPPS was found to be a soluble 44.2-kDa protein, while SmGGPPS was a soluble 38.3-kDa protein. Characterization of the substrate utilization of the two enzymes indicates that they have overlapping substrate specificities. Against SmFPPS, several bisphosphonates had 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) in the low micromolar to nanomolar range; these inhibitors had significantly less activity against SmGGPPS. Several lipophilic bisphosphonates were active against ex vivo adult worms, with worm death occurring over 4 to 6 days. These results indicate that FPPS and GGPPS could be of interest in the context of the emerging resistance to praziquantel in schistosomiasis therapy.
Collapse
|
10
|
SHEN S, WANG L, SUN Z, LI M, LIU C, TIAN B, YUN J, HUA Y. Separation of Recombinant Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase of Deinococcus radiodurans from Expressed Strain Cell Homogenate by Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography on a Characterized Monolithic Cryogel Column. Chin J Chem Eng 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/s1004-9541(13)60514-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
11
|
Sasaki D, Fujihashi M, Okuyama N, Kobayashi Y, Noike M, Koyama T, Miki K. Crystal structure of heterodimeric hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase from Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 reveals that the small subunit is directly involved in the product chain length regulation. J Biol Chem 2010; 286:3729-40. [PMID: 21068379 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.147991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase from Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 (Ml-HexPPs) is a heterooligomeric type trans-prenyltransferase catalyzing consecutive head-to-tail condensations of three molecules of isopentenyl diphosphates (C(5)) on a farnesyl diphosphate (FPP; C(15)) to form an (all-E) hexaprenyl diphosphate (HexPP; C(30)). Ml-HexPPs is known to function as a heterodimer of two different subunits, small and large subunits called HexA and HexB, respectively. Compared with homooligomeric trans-prenyltransferases, the molecular mechanism of heterooligomeric trans-prenyltransferases is not yet clearly understood, particularly with respect to the role of the small subunits lacking the catalytic motifs conserved in most known trans-prenyltransferases. We have determined the crystal structure of Ml-HexPPs both in the substrate-free form and in complex with 7,11-dimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrien-1-yl diphosphate ammonium salt (3-DesMe-FPP), an analog of FPP. The structure of HexB is composed of mostly antiparallel α-helices joined by connecting loops. Two aspartate-rich motifs (designated the first and second aspartate-rich motifs) and the other characteristic motifs in HexB are located around the diphosphate part of 3-DesMe-FPP. Despite the very low amino acid sequence identity and the distinct polypeptide chain lengths between HexA and HexB, the structure of HexA is quite similar to that of HexB. The aliphatic tail of 3-DesMe-FPP is accommodated in a large hydrophobic cleft starting from HexB and penetrating to the inside of HexA. These structural features suggest that HexB catalyzes the condensation reactions and that HexA is directly involved in the product chain length control in cooperation with HexB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Sasaki
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Noike M, Katagiri T, Nakayama T, Koyama T, Nishino T, Hemmi H. The product chain length determination mechanism of type II geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase requires subunit interaction. FEBS J 2008; 275:3921-33. [PMID: 18616462 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06538.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The product chain length determination mechanism of type II geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase from the bacterium, Pantoea ananatis, was studied. In most types of short-chain (all-E) prenyl diphosphate synthases, bulky amino acids at the fourth and/or fifth positions upstream from the first aspartate-rich motif play a primary role in the product determination mechanism. However, type II geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase lacks such bulky amino acids at these positions. The second position upstream from the G(Q/E) motif has recently been shown to participate in the mechanism of chain length determination in type III geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase. Amino acid substitutions adjacent to the residues upstream from the first aspartate-rich motif and from the G(Q/E) motif did not affect the chain length of the final product. Two amino acid insertion in the first aspartate-rich motif, which is typically found in bacterial enzymes, is thought to be involved in the product determination mechanism. However, deletion mutation of the insertion had no effect on product chain length. Thus, based on the structures of homologous enzymes, a new line of mutants was constructed in which bulky amino acids in the alpha-helix located at the expected subunit interface were replaced with alanine. Two mutants gave products with longer chain lengths, suggesting that type II geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase utilizes an unexpected mechanism of chain length determination, which requires subunit interaction in the homooligomeric enzyme. This possibility is strongly supported by the recently determined crystal structure of plant type II geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Motoyoshi Noike
- Department of Biochemistry and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Miyagi, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Saikia S, Nicholson MJ, Young C, Parker EJ, Scott B. The genetic basis for indole-diterpene chemical diversity in filamentous fungi. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 112:184-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2007.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2007] [Revised: 05/24/2007] [Accepted: 06/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
14
|
DeGraw AJ, Zhao Z, Strickland CL, Taban AH, Hsieh J, Michael J, Xie W, Shintani D, McMahan C, Cornish K, Distefano MD. A photoactive isoprenoid diphosphate analogue containing a stable phosphonate linkage: synthesis and biochemical studies with prenyltransferases. J Org Chem 2007; 72:4587-95. [PMID: 17477573 PMCID: PMC2561318 DOI: 10.1021/jo0623033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A number of biochemical processes rely on isoprenoids, including the post-translational modification of signaling proteins and the biosynthesis of a wide array of compounds. Photoactivatable analogues have been developed to study isoprenoid utilizing enzymes such as the isoprenoid synthases and prenyltransferases. While these initial analogues proved to be excellent structural analogues with good cross-linking capability, they lack the stability needed when the goals include isolation of cross-linked species, tryptic digestion, and subsequent peptide sequencing. Here, the synthesis of a benzophenone-based farnesyl diphosphate analogue containing a stable phosphonophosphate group is described. Inhibition kinetics, photolabeling experiments, as well as X-ray crystallographic analysis with a protein prenyltransferase are described, verifying this compound as a good isoprenoid mimetic. In addition, the utility of this new analogue was explored by using it to photoaffinity label crude protein extracts obtained from Hevea brasiliensis latex. Those experiments suggest that a small protein, rubber elongation factor, interacts directly with farnesyl diphosphate during rubber biosynthesis. These results indicate that this benzophenone-based isoprenoid analogue will be useful for identifying enzymes that utilize farnesyl diphosphate as a substrate.
Collapse
|
15
|
Kavanagh KL, Dunford JE, Bunkoczi G, Russell RGG, Oppermann U. The crystal structure of human geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase reveals a novel hexameric arrangement and inhibitory product binding. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:22004-22012. [PMID: 16698791 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m602603200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Modification of GTPases with isoprenoid molecules derived from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate or farnesyl pyrophosphate is an essential requisite for cellular signaling pathways. The synthesis of these isoprenoids proceeds in mammals through the mevalonate pathway, and the final steps in the synthesis are catalyzed by the related enzymes farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase. Both enzymes play crucial roles in cell survival, and inhibition of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase by nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates is an established concept in the treatment of bone disorders such as osteoporosis or certain forms of cancer in bone. Here we report the crystal structure of human geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase, the first mammalian ortholog to have its x-ray structure determined. It reveals that three dimers join together to form a propeller-bladed hexameric molecule with a mass of approximately 200 kDa. Structure-based sequence alignments predict this quaternary structure to be restricted to mammalian and insect orthologs, whereas fungal, bacterial, archaeal, and plant forms exhibit the dimeric organization also observed in farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase. Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate derived from heterologous bacterial expression is tightly bound in a cavity distinct from the chain elongation site described for farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase. The structure most likely represents an inhibitory complex, which is further corroborated by steady-state kinetics, suggesting a possible feedback mechanism for regulating enzyme activity. Structural comparisons between members of this enzyme class give deeper insights into conserved features important for catalysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn L Kavanagh
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, United Kingdom.
| | - James E Dunford
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, United Kingdom; Institute of Musculoskeletal Sciences, Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, United Kingdom
| | - Gabor Bunkoczi
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, United Kingdom
| | - R Graham G Russell
- Institute of Musculoskeletal Sciences, Botnar Research Centre, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, United Kingdom
| | - Udo Oppermann
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Botnar Research Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LD, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Isoprenoids represent the oldest class of known low molecular-mass natural products synthesized by plants. Their biogenesis in plastids, mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum-cytosol proceed invariably from the C5 building blocks, isopentenyl diphosphate and/or dimethylallyl diphosphate according to complex and reiterated mechanisms. Compounds derived from the pathway exhibit a diverse spectrum of biological functions. This review centers on advances obtained in the field based on combined use of biochemical, molecular biology and genetic approaches. The function and evolutionary implications of this metabolism are discussed in relation with seminal informations gathered from distantly but related organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florence Bouvier
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes du CNRS (UPR2357) et Université Louis Pasteur, 12 rue du Général Zimmer, 67084 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
RAS and many other oncogenic proteins undergo a complex series of post-translational modifications that are initiated by the addition of an isoprenoid lipid through a process known as prenylation. Following prenylation, these proteins usually undergo endoproteolytic processing by the RCE1 protease and then carboxyl methylation by a unique methyltransferase known as isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methyltransferase (ICMT). Although inhibitors that have been designed to target the prenylation step are now in advanced-stage clinical trials, their utility and efficacy seem to be limited. Recent findings, however, indicate that the inhibition of these post-prenylation-processing steps--particularly that of ICMT-catalysed methylation--might provide a better approach to the control of cancer-cell proliferation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Winter-Vann
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Hemmerlin A, Rivera SB, Erickson HK, Poulter CD. Enzymes encoded by the farnesyl diphosphate synthase gene family in the Big Sagebrush Artemisia tridentata ssp. spiciformis. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:32132-40. [PMID: 12782626 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m213045200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Farnesyl diphosphate synthase catalyzes the sequential head-to-tail condensation of two molecules of isopentenyl diphosphate with dimethylallyl diphosphate. In plants the presence of farnesyl diphosphate synthase isozymes offers the possibility of differential regulation. Three full-length cDNAs encoding putative isoprenoid synthases, FDS-1, FDS-2, and FDS-5, with greater than 89% similarity were isolated from a Big Sagebrush Artemisia tridentata cDNA library using a three-step polymerase chain reaction protocol. One of the open reading frames, FDS-5, encoded a protein with an N-terminal amino acid extension that was identified as a plastidial targeting peptide. Recombinant histidine-tagged versions of three proteins were purified, and their enzymatic properties were characterized. FDS-1 and FDS-2 synthesized farnesyl diphosphate as the final chain elongation product, but their kinetic behavior varied. FDS-1 prefers geranyl diphosphate over dimethylallyl diphosphate as an allylic substrate and is active at acidic pH values compared with FDS-2. In contrast, FDS-5 synthesized two irregular monoterpenoids, chrysanthemyl diphosphate and lavandulyl diphosphate, when incubated with dimethylallyl diphosphate and an additional product, the regular monoterpene geranyl diphosphate, when incubated with isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate. Specific cellular functions are proposed for each of the three enzymes, and a scenario for evolution of isoprenyl synthases in plants is presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Hemmerlin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0850, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sen SE, Sperry AE. Partial purification of a farnesyl diphosphate synthase from whole-body Manduca sexta. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 32:889-899. [PMID: 12110296 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(01)00178-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPP synthase) is a ubiquitous enzyme that is required for the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes, dolichols ubiquinones, and prenylated proteins in insects. We report on the partial purification and characterization of an FPP synthase, obtained from whole-body preparations of the lepidopteran insect, Manduca sexta. The larval enzyme was separated from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) isomerase, phosphatase, and GGPP synthase by preparative isoelectric focusing, and was further purified by DEAE Sepharose, hydroxyapatite, and size exclusion chromatography. Whole-body M. sexta FPP synthase has a native molecular weight of 60.5+/-3.5 kDa and consists of two subunits of 28.5+/-0.5 kDa. As seen with other prenyltransferases, the enzyme has an absolute requirement for divalent cation and both Mn(2+) and Mg(2+) stimulated activity, although the former was inhibitory at higher concentrations. Insect FPP synthase catalyzes the condensation of IPP (K(m)=2.9+/-1.2 microM) with both dimethylallyl diphosphate and geranyl diphosphate (K(m)=0.8+/-0.4 microM). The enzyme requires the presence of detergent, glycerol, and non-specific protein-protein interactions for stability and maximum catalytic activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie E Sen
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University--Purdue University at Indianapolis, 402 North Blackford Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Szabo CM, Matsumura Y, Fukura S, Martin MB, Sanders JM, Sengupta S, Cieslak JA, Loftus TC, Lea CR, Lee HJ, Koohang A, Coates RM, Sagami H, Oldfield E. Inhibition of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase by bisphosphonates and diphosphates: a potential route to new bone antiresorption and antiparasitic agents. J Med Chem 2002; 45:2185-96. [PMID: 12014956 DOI: 10.1021/jm010412y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We report the inhibition of a human recombinant geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPSase) by 23 bisphosphonates and six azaprenyl diphosphates. The IC50 values range from 140 nM to 690 microM. None of the nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates that inhibit farnesyl diphosphate synthase were effective in inhibiting the GGPPSase enzyme. Using three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship/comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) methods, we find a good correlation between experimental and predicted activity: R2 = 0.938, R(cv)2 = 0.900, R(bs)2 = 0.938, and F-test = 86.8. To test the predictive utility of the CoMFA approach, we used three training sets of 25 compounds each to generate models to predict three test sets of three compounds. The rms pIC50 error for the nine predictions was 0.39. We also investigated the pharmacophore of these GGPPSase inhibitors using the Catalyst method. The results demonstrated that Catalyst predicted the pIC50 values for the nine test set compounds with an rms error of 0.28 (R2 between experimental and predicted activity of 0.948).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Szabo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Burke C, Croteau R. Interaction with the small subunit of geranyl diphosphate synthase modifies the chain length specificity of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase to produce geranyl diphosphate. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:3141-9. [PMID: 11733504 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m105900200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Geranyl diphosphate synthase belongs to a subgroup of prenyltransferases, including farnesyl diphosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase, that catalyzes the specific formation, from C(5) units, of the respective C(10), C(15), and C(20) precursors of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes. Unlike farnesyl diphosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase, which are homodimers, geranyl diphosphate synthase from Mentha is a heterotetramer in which the large subunit shares functional motifs and a high level of amino acid sequence identity (56-75%) with geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases of plant origin. The small subunit, however, shares little sequence identity with other isoprenyl diphosphate synthases; yet it is absolutely required for geranyl diphosphate synthase catalysis. Coexpression in Escherichia coli of the Mentha geranyl diphosphate synthase small subunit with the phylogenetically distant geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases from Taxus canadensis and Abies grandis yielded a functional hybrid heterodimer that generated geranyl diphosphate as product in each case. These results indicate that the geranyl diphosphate synthase small subunit is capable of modifying the chain length specificity of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (but not, apparently, farnesyl diphosphate synthase) to favor the production of C(10) chains. Comparison of the kinetic behavior of the parent prenyltransferases with that of the hybrid enzyme revealed that the hybrid possesses characteristics of both geranyl diphosphate synthase and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Burke
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Program in Plant Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-6340, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Kainou T, Okada K, Suzuki K, Nakagawa T, Matsuda H, Kawamukai M. Dimer formation of octaprenyl-diphosphate synthase (IspB) is essential for chain length determination of ubiquinone. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:7876-83. [PMID: 11108713 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m007472200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Ubiquinone (Q), composed of a quinone core and an isoprenoid side chain, is a key component of the respiratory chain and is an important antioxidant. In Escherichia coli, the side chain of Q-8 is synthesized by octaprenyl-diphosphate synthase, which is encoded by an essential gene, ispB. To determine how IspB regulates the length of the isoprenoid, we constructed 15 ispB mutants and expressed them in E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The Y38A and R321V mutants produced Q-6 and Q-7, and the Y38A/R321V double mutant produced Q-5 and Q-6, indicating that these residues are involved in the determination of chain length. E. coli cells (ispB::cat) harboring an Arg-321 mutant were temperature-sensitive for growth, which indicates that Arg-321 is important for thermostability of IspB. Intriguingly, E. coli cells harboring wild-type ispB and the A79Y mutant produced mainly Q-6, although the activity of the enzyme with the A79Y mutation was completely abolished. When a heterodimer of His-tagged wild-type IspB and glutathione S-transferase-tagged IspB(A79Y) was formed, the enzyme produced a shorter length isoprenoid. These results indicate that although the A79Y mutant is functionally inactive, it can regulate activity upon forming a heterodimer with wild-type IspB, and this dimer formation is important for the determination of the isoprenoid chain length.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Kainou
- Department of Applied Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu, Matsue 690-8504, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Laskaris G, Verpoorte R. Purification and partial characterisation of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase, from Taxus baccata cell cultures. An enzyme that regulates taxane biosynthesis. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2000; 153:97-105. [PMID: 10717315 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-9452(99)00263-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) synthase, an enzyme that regulates taxane biosynthesis, was purified to homogeneity from cell cultures of Taxus baccata. The molecular weight of the native protein was estimated to be 76+/-2 kDa, resulting from the association of two apparently identical subunits having a molecular weight of 38 kDa. Farnesyl diphosphate (K(m) 2.46 µM) in combination with isopentenyl diphosphate (K(m) 1.5 µM) was the most effective substrate. Dimethyl allyl diphosphate was a poorer substrate (K(m) 12.7 µM). Mn(2+) ion at 4 mM in combination with Mg(2+) of 2 mM gave the greatest stimulation of activity. The pI of the enzyme was lower than 4 and the pH optimum was between 6.9 and 7.2. The enzyme activity was found in the 20000xg (centrifugal force) pellet and a non-ionic detergent was used for its extraction. The inclusion of detergent was not necessary during subsequent chromatographic steps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Laskaris
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Leiden/Amsterdam Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Vicent D, Maratos-Flier E, Kahn CR. The branch point enzyme of the mevalonate pathway for protein prenylation is overexpressed in the ob/ob mouse and induced by adipogenesis. Mol Cell Biol 2000; 20:2158-66. [PMID: 10688662 PMCID: PMC110832 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.20.6.2158-2166.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have recently reported that skeletal muscle of the ob/ob mouse, an animal model of genetic obesity with extreme insulin resistance, exhibits alterations in the expression of multiple genes. Analysis and cloning of a full-length cDNA of one of the overexpressed mRNAs revealed a 300-amino-acid protein that could be identified as the mouse geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPP synthase) based on its homology to proteins cloned from yeast and fungus. GGPP synthase catalyzes the synthesis of all-trans-geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), an isoprenoid used for protein isoprenylation in animal cells, and is a branch point enzyme in the mevalonic acid pathway. Three mRNAs for GGPP synthase of 4.3, 3.2, and 1.7 kb were detected in Northern blot analysis. Western blot analysis of tissue homogenates using specific antipeptide antibodies revealed a single band of 34.8 kDa. Expression level of this protein in different tissues correlated with expression of the 4.3- and 3.2-kb mRNAs. GGPP synthase mRNA expression was increased 5- to 20-fold in skeletal muscle, liver, and fat of ob/ob mice by Northern blot analysis. Western blot analysis also showed a twofold overexpression of the protein in muscle and fat but not in liver, where the dominant isoform is encoded by the 1.7-kb mRNA. Differentiation of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts into adipocytes induced GGPP synthase expression more than 20-fold. Using the immunoprecipitated protein, we found that mammalian GGPP synthase synthesizes not only GGPP but also its metabolic precursor farnesyl diphosphate. Thus, the expression of GGPP synthase is regulated in multiple tissues in obesity and is induced during adipocyte differentiation. Altered regulation in the synthesis of isoprenoids for protein prenylation in obesity might be a factor determining the ability of the cells to respond to hormonal stimulation requiring both Ras-related small GTPases and trimeric G protein-coupled receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Vicent
- Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Bergstrom JD, Bostedor RG, Masarachia PJ, Reszka AA, Rodan G. Alendronate is a specific, nanomolar inhibitor of farnesyl diphosphate synthase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 373:231-41. [PMID: 10620343 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1999.1502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Alendronate, a nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate, is a potent inhibitor of bone resorption used for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis. Recent findings suggest that alendronate and other N-containing bisphosphonates inhibit the isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway and interfere with protein prenylation, as a result of reduced geranylgeranyl diphosphate levels. This study identified farnesyl disphosphate synthase as the mevalonate pathway enzyme inhibited by bisphosphonates. HPLC analysis of products from a liver cytosolic extract narrowed the potential targets for alendronate inhibition (IC(50) = 1700 nM) to isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase and farnesyl diphosphate synthase. Recombinant human farnesyl diphosphate synthase was inhibited by alendronate with an IC(50) of 460 nM (following 15 min preincubation). Alendronate did not inhibit isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase or GGPP synthase, partially purified from liver cytosol. Recombinant farnesyl diphosphate synthase was also inhibited by pamidronate (IC(50) = 500 nM) and risedronate (IC(50) = 3.9 nM), negligibly by etidronate (IC50 = 80 microM), and not at all by clodronate. In osteoclasts, alendronate inhibited the incorporation of [(3)H]mevalonolactone into proteins of 18-25 kDa and into nonsaponifiable lipids, including sterols. These findings (i) identify farnesyl diphosphate synthase as the selective target of alendronate in the mevalonate pathway, (ii) show that this enzyme is inhibited by other N-containing bisphosphonates, such as risendronate, but not by clodronate, supporting a different mechanism of action for different bisphosphonates, and (iii) document in purified osteoclasts alendronate inhibition of prenylation and sterol biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J D Bergstrom
- Infectious Disease, Merck Research Laboratories (R80-A14), Rahway, New Jersey, 07065, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Wang K, Ohnuma S. Chain-length determination mechanism of isoprenyl diphosphate synthases and implications for molecular evolution. Trends Biochem Sci 1999; 24:445-51. [PMID: 10542413 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0004(99)01464-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In the synthesis of isoprenoids, isoprenyl diphosphate synthases catalyze the consecutive condensation of isopentenyl diphosphate with allylic diphosphates to produce a variety of prenyl diphosphates with well-defined chain lengths. Site-directed mutagenesis in conjunction with X-ray crystallographic studies have identified specific amino acid residues responsible for chain-length determination. Simple combinations of these residues within a characteristic motif are not only sufficient to confer product specificities to all isoprenyl diphosphate synthases but represent structural features that reflect the enzyme family's evolutionary course.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Wang
- University of California San Francisco, School of Medicine, S 245, Box 0454, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Alejo A, Andrés G, Viñuela E, Salas ML. The African swine fever virus prenyltransferase is an integral membrane trans-geranylgeranyl-diphosphate synthase. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:18033-9. [PMID: 10364254 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.25.18033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In a previous study, it was shown that the protein encoded by the gene B318L of African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a trans-prenyltransferase that catalyzes in vitro the condensation of farnesyl diphosphate and isopentenyl diphosphate to synthesize geranylgeranyl diphosphate and longer chain prenyl diphosphates (Alejo, A., Yáñez, R. J., Rodríguez, J. M., Viñuela, E., and Salas, M. L. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 9417-9423). To investigate the in vivo function of the viral enzyme, we have determined, in this work, its subcellular localization and activity in cell extracts. Two systems were used in these studies: cells infected with ASFV and cells infected with a recombinant pseudo-Sindbis virus carrying the complete B318L gene. In this latter system, the trans-prenyltransferase was found to colocalize with the endoplasmic reticulum marker protein-disulfide isomerase, whereas in cells infected with ASFV, the viral enzyme was present in cytoplasmic viral assembly sites, associated with precursor viral membranes derived from the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, after subcellular fractionation, the viral enzyme partitioned into the membrane fraction. Extraction of membrane proteins with alkaline carbonate and Triton X-114 indicated that the ASFV enzyme behaved as an integral membrane protein. The membrane enzyme synthesized predominantly all-trans-geranylgeranyl diphosphate from farnesyl diphosphate and isopentenyl diphosphate. These results indicate that the viral B318L protein is a trans-geranylgeranyl-diphosphate synthase, being the only enzyme of this type that is known to have a membrane localization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Alejo
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Kainou T, Kawamura K, Tanaka K, Matsuda H, Kawamukai M. Identification of the GGPS1 genes encoding geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases from mouse and human. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1999; 1437:333-40. [PMID: 10101267 DOI: 10.1016/s1388-1981(99)00028-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
E,E,E-Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) is an important precursor of carotenoids and geranylgeranylated proteins such as small G proteins. In this study, we have identified mouse and human GGPP synthase genes. Sequence analysis showed that mouse and human GGPP synthases share a high level of amino acid identity (94%) with each other, and share a high level of similarity (45-50%) with GGPP synthases of lower eukaryotes, but only weak similarity (22-31%) to plant and prokaryotic GGPP synthases. Both of the newly identified GGPP synthase genes from mouse and human were expressed in Escherichia coli, and their gene products displayed GGPP synthase activity when isopentenyl diphosphate and farnesyl diphosphate were used as substrates. The GGPP synthase activity of these genes was also confirmed by demonstrating carotenoid synthesis after co-transformation of E. coli with a plasmid expressing the crt genes derived from Erwinia uredovora, and a plasmid expressing either the mouse or human GGPS1 gene. Southern blot analysis suggests that the human GGPS1 gene is a single copy gene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Kainou
- Department of Applied Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu, Matsue 690-8504, Japan
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kuzuguchi T, Morita Y, Sagami I, Sagami H, Ogura K. Human geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase. cDNA cloning and expression. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:5888-94. [PMID: 10026212 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.9.5888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) synthase (GGPPSase) catalyzes the synthesis of GGPP, which is an important molecule responsible for the C20-prenylated protein biosynthesis and for the regulation of a nuclear hormone receptor (LXR.RXR). The human GGPPSase cDNA encodes a protein of 300 amino acids which shows 16% sequence identity with the known human farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) synthase (FPPSase). The GGPPSase expressed in Escherichia coli catalyzes the GGPP formation (240 nmol/min/mg) from FPP and isopentenyl diphosphate. The human GGPPSase behaves as an oligomeric molecule with 280 kDa on a gel filtration column and cross-reacts with an antibody directed against bovine brain GGPPSase, which differs immunochemically from bovine brain FPPSase. Northern blot analysis indicates the presence of two forms of the mRNA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Kuzuguchi
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Science, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Ericsson J, Greene JM, Carter KC, Shell BK, Duan DR, Florence C, Edwards PA. Human geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase: isolation of the cDNA, chromosomal mapping and tissue expression. J Lipid Res 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2275(20)32159-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
|
31
|
Affiliation(s)
- Kyozo Ogura
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Science, Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1, Sendai 980-8577 Japan
| | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Abstract
Isoprenyl diphosphate synthases catalyze addition of allylic diphosphate primers to the isoprene unit in isopentenyl diphosphate to produce polyisoprenoid diphosphates with well defined chain lengths. Phylogenetic correlations suggest that the synthases which catalyze formation of isoprenoid diphosphates with (E) double bonds have evolved from a common ancestor. X-ray crystallographic studies of farnesyl diphosphate synthase in conjunction with site-directed mutagenesis have provided important new information about the residues involved in binding and catalysis and the source of chain length selectivity for the enzymes that catalyze chain elongation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B A Kellogg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Alejo A, Yáñez RJ, Rodríguez JM, Viñuela E, Salas ML. African swine fever virus trans-prenyltransferase. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:9417-23. [PMID: 9083080 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.14.9417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study describes the characterization of an African swine fever virus gene homologous to prenyltransferases. The gene, designated B318L, is located within the EcoRI B fragment in the central region of the virus genome, and encodes a polypeptide with a predicted molecular weight of 35,904. The protein is characterized by the presence of a putative hydrophobic transmembrane domain at the amino end. The gene is expressed at the late stage of virus infection, and transcription is initiated at positions -118, -119, -120, and -122 relative to the first nucleotide of the translation start codon. Protein B318L presents a colinear arrangement of the four highly conserved regions and the two aspartate-rich motifs characteristic of geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases, farnesyl diphosphate synthases, and other prenyltransferases. Throughout these regions, the percentages of identity between protein B318L and various prenyltransferases range from 28.6 to 48.7%. The gene was cloned in vector pTrxFus without the amino-terminal hydrophobic region and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein, purified essentially to homogeneity by affinity chromatography, catalyzes the sequential condensation of isopentenyl diphosphate with different allylic diphosphates, farnesyl diphosphate being the best allylic substrate of the reaction. All-trans-polyprenyl diphosphates containing 3-13 isoprene units are synthesized, which identifies the B318L protein as a trans-prenyltransferase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Alejo
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Affiliation(s)
- P M Dewick
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nottingham, UK
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Abstract
It is noteworthy that in spite of the similarity of the reactions catalyzed by these prenyltransferases, the modes of expression of catalytic function are surprisingly different, varying according to the chain length and stereochemistry of reaction products. These enzymes are summarized and classified into four groups, as shown in Figure 13. Short-chain prenyl diphosphates synthases such as FPP and GGPP synthases require no cofactor except divalent metal ions, Mg2+ or Mn2+, which are commonly required by all prenyl diphosphate synthases. Medium-chain prenyl diphosphate synthases, including the enzymes for the synthesis of all-E-HexPP and all-E-HepPP, are unusual because they each consist of two dissociable dissimilar protein components, neither of which has catalytic activity. The enzymes for the synthesis of long-chain all-E-prenyl diphosphates, including octaprenyl (C40), nonaprenyl-(C45), and decaprenyl (C50) diphosphates, require polyprenyl carrier proteins that remove polyprenyl products from the active sites of the enzymes to maintain efficient turnovers of catalysis. The enzymes responsible for Z-chain elongation include Z,E-nonaprenyl-(C45) and Z,E-undecaprenyl (C55) diphosphate synthases, which require a phospholipid. The classification of mammalian synthases seems to be fundamentally similar to that of bacterial synthases except that no medium-chain prenyl diphosphate synthases are included. The Z-prenyl diphosphate synthase in mammalian cells is dehydrodolichyl PP synthase, which catalyzes much longer chain elongations than do bacterial enzymes. Dehydrodolichyl PP synthase will be a major target of future studies in this field in view of its involvement in glycoprotein biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Ogura
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Jiang Y, Proteau P, Poulter D, Ferro-Novick S. BTS1 encodes a geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:21793-9. [PMID: 7665600 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.37.21793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein prenylation utilizes different types of isoprenoids groups, namely farnesyl and geranylgeranyl, to modify proteins. These lipophilic moieties attach to carboxyl-terminal cysteine residues to promote the association of soluble proteins to membranes. Most prenylated proteins are geranylgeranylated. Geranylgeranylation is catalyzed by two different prenyltransferases, the type I and type II geranylgeranyl transferases, both of which utilize geranylgeranyl diphosphate as a lipid donor. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the BET2 gene encodes the beta-subunit of the type II geranylgeranyl transferase. Mutations in this gene cause a defect in the geranylgeranylation of small GTP-binding proteins that mediate vesicular traffic. In an attempt to analyze those genes whose products may interact with Bet2, we isolated a suppressor of the bet2-1 mutant. This suppressor gene, called BTS1, encodes the yeast geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase. BTS1 is not essential for the vegetative growth of cells; however, disrupting it impedes the geranylgeranylation of many cellular proteins and renders cells cold sensitive for growth. Our findings imply that BTS1 suppresses the bet2-1 mutant by increasing the intracellular pool of geranylgeranyl diphosphate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Jiang
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Koike-Takeshita A, Koyama T, Obata S, Ogura K. Molecular cloning and nucleotide sequences of the genes for two essential proteins constituting a novel enzyme system for heptaprenyl diphosphate synthesis. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:18396-400. [PMID: 7629164 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.31.18396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The genes encoding two dissociable components essential for Bacillus stearothermophilus heptaprenyl diphosphate synthase (all-trans-hexparenyl-diphosphate:isopentenyl-diphosphate hexaprenyl-trans-transferase, EC 2.5.1.30) were cloned, and their nucleotide sequences were determined. Sequence analyses revealed the presence of three open reading frames within 2,350 base pairs, designated as ORF-1, ORF-2, and ORF-3 in order of nucleotide sequence, which encode proteins of 220, 234, and 323 amino acids, respectively. Deletion experiments have shown that expression of the enzymatic activity requires the presence of ORF-1 and ORF-3, but ORF-2 is not essential. As a result, this enzyme was proved genetically to consist of two different protein compounds with molecular masses of 25 kDa (Component I) and 36 kDa (Component II), encoded by two of the three tandem genes. The protein encoded by ORF-1 has no similarity to any protein so far registered. However, the protein encoded by ORF-3 shows a 32% similarity to the farnesyl diphosphate synthase of the same bacterium and has seven highly conserved regions that have been shown typical in prenyltransferases (Koyama, T., Obata, S., Osabe, M., Takeshita, A., Yokoyama, K., Uchida, M., Nishino, T., and Ogura, K. (1993) J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 113, 355-363).
Collapse
|