1
|
Guo Z. The Structural Diversity of Natural Glycosphingolipids (GSLs). J Carbohydr Chem 2022; 41:63-154. [PMID: 36561362 PMCID: PMC9770679 DOI: 10.1080/07328303.2022.2063308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are a subclass of glycolipids made of a glycan and a ceramide that, in turn, is composed of a sphingoid base moiety and a fatty acyl group. GSLs represent the vast majority of glycolipids in eukaryotes, and as an essential component of the cell membrane, they play an important role in many biological and pathological processes. Therefore, they are useful targets for the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic methods for human diseases. Since sphingosine was first described by J. L. Thudichum in 1884, several hundred GSL species, not including their diverse lipid forms that can further amplify the number of individual GSLs by many folds, have been isolated from natural sources and structurally characterized. This review tries to provide a comprehensive survey of the major GSL species, especially those with distinct glycan structures and modification patterns, and the ceramides with unique modifications of the lipid chains, that have been discovered to date. In particular, this review is focused on GSLs from eukaryotic species. This review has listed 251 GSL glycans with different linkages, 127 glycans with unique modifications, 46 sphingoids, and 43 fatty acyl groups. It should be helpful for scientists who are interested in GSLs, from isolation and structural analyses to chemical and enzymatic syntheses, as well as their biological studies and applications.
Collapse
|
2
|
The human fetoembryonic defense system hypothesis: Twenty years on. Mol Aspects Med 2016; 51:71-88. [PMID: 27349751 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
3
|
Kaneko T, Tsubakihara Y, Fushimi H, Yamaguchi S, Takabatake Y, Rakugi H, Kawakami H, Isaka Y. Histochemical and immunoelectron microscopic analysis of ganglioside GM3 in human kidney. Clin Exp Nephrol 2014; 19:403-10. [PMID: 24985965 DOI: 10.1007/s10157-014-1003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gangliosides are amphipathic lipids ubiquitously expressed in all vertebrate cells. They have been reported to play pivotal roles in cell morphology, cell adhesion, signal transduction, and modulation of immune reaction. Although human kidney contains various kinds of ganglioside, their physiological and pathophysiological roles have not been elucidated yet. As ganglioside GM3 is the most abundant ganglioside in human kidney, we tried to reveal the distribution of GM3 using histological analysis. METHODS Macroscopically normal parts of operatively resected kidney from renal cell carcinoma patients were used for analyses. Immunohistochemical and immunoelectron microscopic analyses were performed with anti-GM3 antibody. RESULTS Immunohistochemical analyses showed that GM3 was observed in glomeruli and renal proximal tubules. Immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated that GM3 was localized on the foot process of podocyte and also in Golgi region of renal proximal tubule cells. CONCLUSIONS Ganglioside GM3 might take a part of the negative electric charge on the surface of podocyte and its multiple physiological actions may play pivotal roles for maintaining glomerular function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuya Kaneko
- Department of Nephrology, NTT West Japan Osaka Hospital, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Yoshiharu Tsubakihara
- Department of Comprehensive Kidney Disease Research, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Fushimi
- The Department of Pathology, Osaka General Medical Center, Osaka, Japan
| | - Seiji Yamaguchi
- The Department of Urology, Osaka General Medical Center, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshitsugu Takabatake
- Department of Geriatric Medicine and Nephrology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiromi Rakugi
- Department of Geriatric Medicine and Nephrology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hayato Kawakami
- Department of Anatomy, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Isaka
- Department of Geriatric Medicine and Nephrology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hama H. Fatty acid 2-Hydroxylation in mammalian sphingolipid biology. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2009; 1801:405-14. [PMID: 20026285 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2009] [Revised: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/14/2009] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
2-Hydroxy fatty acids (hFA) are important components of a subset of mammalian sphingolipids. The presence of hFA in sphingolipids is best described in the nervous system, epidermis, and kidney. However, the literature also indicates that various hFA-sphingolipids are present in additional tissues and cell types, as well as in tumors. Biosynthesis of hFA-sphingolipids requires fatty acid 2-hydroyxlase, and degradation of hFA-sphingolipids depends, at least in part, on lysosomal acid ceramidase and the peroxisomal fatty acid alpha-oxidation pathway. Mutations in the fatty acid 2-hydroxylase gene, FA2H, have been associated with leukodystrophy and spastic paraparesis in humans, underscoring the importance of hFA-sphingolipids in the nervous system. In the epidermis, hFA-ceramides are essential for the permeability barrier function. Physiological function of hFA-sphingolipids in other organs remains largely unknown. Recent evidence indicates that hFA-sphingolipids have specific roles in cell signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Hama
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gege C, Schumacher G, Rothe U, Schmidt RR, Bendas G. Visualization of sialyl LewisX glycosphingolipid microdomains in model membranes as selectin recognition motifs using a fluorescence label. Carbohydr Res 2008; 343:2361-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2008] [Revised: 07/02/2008] [Accepted: 07/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
6
|
Kolling GL, Obata F, Gross LK, Obrig TG. Immunohistologic techniques for detecting the glycolipid Gb3 in the mouse kidney and nervous system. Histochem Cell Biol 2008; 130:157-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-008-0417-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
7
|
Kameyama A, Ishida H, Kiso M, Hasegawa A. Synthetic Studies on Sialoglycoconjugates 27: Synthesis of Sialyl-α(2→6)-Lewis X. J Carbohydr Chem 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/07328309108543946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
8
|
Kameyama A, Ishida H, Kiso M, Hasegawa A. Synthetic Studies on Sialoglycoconjugates 22: Total Synthesis of Tumor-Associated Ganglioside, Sialyl Lewis X1. J Carbohydr Chem 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/07328309108543931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
9
|
Magnani JL. The discovery, biology, and drug development of sialyl Lea and sialyl Lex. Arch Biochem Biophys 2004; 426:122-31. [PMID: 15158662 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2004.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2004] [Revised: 04/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The discoveries of sialylated, fucosylated lacto-, and neolacto-type carbohydrate structures were accomplished with the aid of analytical methods and monoclonal antibodies such as the immunostaining of thin layer chromatograms. Based on the use of such antibodies, these structures, notably sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x), were demonstrated to be highly expressed in many malignant cancers. A diagnostic assay using one of these antibodies (CA19-9) is now established as one of the more commonly used assays for pancreatic and gastrointestinal cancers worldwide. Upon further study, several laboratories have demonstrated that the level of expression of these carbohydrate tumor markers is also positively correlated with patient survival and is a prognostic indicator of metastatic disease. Concurrent with this finding, both sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x) were shown to bind to a family of carbohydrate-binding proteins involved in the extravasation of cells from the bloodstream, called the selectins. Thus, sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x) expressed on cell surfaces play functional roles in medical conditions that require extravasation of cells from the bloodstream which include a wide range of inflammatory diseases and cancer metastasis. Many studies have confirmed the function of sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x) in animal models of these diseases and the inhibition of binding of sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x) to the selectins is a validated drug target in the pharmaceutical industry. Thus, a new class of drugs, arising from the field of glycobiology, is based on the rational design of small molecule drugs that mimic the structures sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x) and can potently inhibit their functional binding to the selectins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John L Magnani
- GlycoMimetics Inc., 14915 Broschart Road, Rockville, MD, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Unger FM. The chemistry of oligosaccharide ligands of selectins: significance for the development of new immunomodulatory medicines. Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem 2002; 57:207-435. [PMID: 11836943 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2318(01)57018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F M Unger
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Ultrastructure Research, Agricultural University, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Saito M, Sugiyama K. Gangliosides in rat kidney: composition, distribution, and developmental changes. Arch Biochem Biophys 2001; 386:11-6. [PMID: 11360994 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2000.2206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Gangliosides in rat kidney were analyzed for their composition, regional distribution, and developmental changes. Renal tissue from 7-week-old rats showed a GM3-dominant pattern with GD3 and several minor ganglioside components including GM4, GM2, GD1a, and an unknown ganglioside (ganglioside X). The tissue also contained c-series gangliosides that included GT3 as the main component with GT2 in a lesser amount. Ganglioside analysis of cortical and medullary regions of renal tissue suggested the restricted localization of some gangliosides. While GM4 and GD3 were enriched in the cortical region, GM2 was distributed mainly in the medullary area. Renal gangliosides showed unique developmental profiles during a period from Embryonic Day 20 (E20) to 7 weeks postnatal. The content of renal gangliosides increased from E20, reached the highest around Postnatal Day 1, and thereafter, decreased rapidly to the adult level. The ratio of N-glycolylneuraminic acid to total sialic acids in gangliosides tended to change in inverse proportion to the amount of total sialic acids. The composition of major gangliosides in renal tissues shifted from GD3-dominant to GM3-dominant patterns with advancing ages. While GM1 was expressed only at early stages of the development, GM4, GM2, and ganglioside X appeared after Postnatal Day 3. The expression of c-series gangliosides was less affected through the period examined. These results suggest that gangliosides may be implicated with development and function of rat kidney.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Saito
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Japan.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Gege C, Oscarson S, Schmidt RR. Synthesis of fluorescence labeled sialyl LewisX glycosphingolipids. Tetrahedron Lett 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(00)01995-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
13
|
Chowdhury US. Synthesis of the Key Disaccharide of 3′-Sulfo Lewis X and Lewis A: The Novel E-Selectin Ligand. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2000. [DOI: 10.1080/00397910008087007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
14
|
|
15
|
Yoshida M, Kawakami Y, Ishida H, Kiso M, Hasegawa A. Synthetic Studies on Sialoglycoconjugates 85: Synthesis of Sialyl Lewis X Ganglioside Analogs Containing a Variety of Anionic Substituents in Place of Sialic Acid. J Carbohydr Chem 1996. [DOI: 10.1080/07328309608005662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
16
|
Ariga T, Bhat S, Kanda T, Yamawaki M, Tai T, Kushi Y, Kasama T, Handa S, Yu RK. Expression and localization of Lewis(x) glycolipids and GD1a ganglioside in human glioma cells. Glycoconj J 1996; 13:135-45. [PMID: 8737237 DOI: 10.1007/bf00731487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We analysed the glycolipid composition of glioma cells (N-370 FG cells), which are derived from a culture of transformed human fetal glial cells. The neutral and acidic glycolipid fractions were isolated by column chromatography on DEAE-Sephadex and analysed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). The neutral glycolipid fraction contained 1.6 micrograms of lipid-bound glucose/galactose per mg protein and consisted of GlcCer (11.4% of total neutral glycolipids), GalCer (21.5%), LacCer (21.4%), Gb4 (21.1%), and three unknown neutral glycolipids (23%). These unknown glycolipids were characterized as Lewis(x) (fucosylneolactonorpentaosyl ceramide; Le(x)), difucosylneolactonorhexaosyl ceramide (dimeric Le(x)), and neolactonorhexaosyl ceramide (nLc6) by an HPTLC-overlay method for glycolipids using specific mouse anti-glycolipid antibodies against glycolipid and/or liquid-secondary ion (LSI) mass spectrometry. The ganglioside fraction contained 0.6 micrograms of lipid-bound sialic acid per mg protein with GD1a as the predominant ganglioside species (83% of the total gangliosides) and GM3, GM2, and GM1 as minor components. Trace amounts of sialyl-Le(x) and the complex type of sialyl-Le(x) derivatives were also present. Immunocytochemical studies revealed that GD1a and GalCer were primarily localized on the surface of cell bodies. Interestingly, Le(x) glycolipids and sialyl-Le(x) were localized not only on the cell bodies but also on short cell processes. Especially, sialyl-Le(x) glycolipid was located on the tip of fine cellular processes. The unique localization of the Le(x) glycolipids suggests that they may be involved in cellular differentiation and initiation of cellular growth in this cell line.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Ariga
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond 23298-0614, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Watkins WM. Chapter 5 Biosynthesis 5. Molecular Basis of Antigenic Specificity in the ABO, H and Lewis Blood-Group Systems. NEW COMPREHENSIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7306(08)60597-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
|
18
|
Ariga T, Tao R, Lee B, Yamawaki M, Yoshino H, Scarsdale N, Kasama T, Kushi Y, Yu R. Glycolipid composition of human cataractous lenses. Characterization of Lewisx glycolipids. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)41996-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
|
19
|
Holthöfer H, Reivinen J, Miettinen A. Nephron segment and cell-type specific expression of gangliosides in the developing and adult kidney. Kidney Int 1994; 45:123-30. [PMID: 8127000 DOI: 10.1038/ki.1994.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Despite the increasing knowledge of the role of gangliosides in normal and diseased tissues, little is known of the presence, distribution and functions of these molecules in the kidney. In this study we analyzed the main gangliosides of isolated glomeruli and cortical, medullary and papillary fractions of the human, rat and bovine kidneys biochemically. In addition, we used immunohistochemistry to visualize the distribution of GM1/GM2, GD2, GD3 and O-acetyl GD3 gangliosides along the nephron. Furthermore, we explored the species specific expression of gangliosides by comparing those from the rat, bovine and human kidney, and studied the pattern of ganglioside expression during development. In glomeruli, cortical tubuli, medullae and papillae, a relatively simple pattern of main gangliosides was observed as revealed by thin layer chromatographic (TLC) analysis in each species studied. Furthermore, considerable changes in the glomerular gangliosides during maturation were observed, with a complex type of gangliosides predominating during the fetal age and with a preference to more simple precursors upon maturation. Interestingly, the immunohistochemical detection revealed a distinct pattern of ganglioside compartmentation to various nephron segments or cell types. These findings provide a basis for studying the role of segment- and cell type-specific gangliosides for local functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Holthöfer
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Affiliation(s)
- A Hasegawa
- Department of Applied Bioorganic Chemistry, Gifu University, Japan
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Morton DL, Ravindranath MH, Irie RF. Tumor gangliosides as targets for active specific immunotherapy of melanoma in man. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 1994; 101:251-75. [PMID: 8029455 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(08)61954-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D L Morton
- John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California 90404
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Neutral glycolipid abnormalities in at-complex mutant mouse embryo. Biochem Genet 1992. [DOI: 10.1007/pl00020517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
23
|
Abstract
The content of neutral glycolipids was studied in normal and twl/twl mutant mouse embryos at embryonic day 11 (E-11). The twl mutation is part of the T/t complex on chromosome 17 and causes embryonic lethality from defects in the developing neural tube. Previous studies suggested that the mutation could involve a defect in ganglioside biosynthesis. Although the total neutral glycolipid content was similar in the normal and mutant whole embryos (approximately 80 nmol glucose/100 mg dry weight), marked differences were detected for the distribution of specific glycolipids. The content of lactosylceramide, globotriaosylceramide, and globotetraosylceramide was significantly higher in the mutant than in the normal embryos, whereas that of glucosylceramide was significantly reduced. The Forssman glycolipid was slightly elevated. The neutral glycolipid composition was similar in embryonic head and body regions of normal embryos, suggesting that the glycolipid abnormalities observed in the mutants are expressed in most embryonic cells and tissues. These and the previously reported ganglioside abnormalities in the twl/twl mutants could result from an inherited defect in glycolipid biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T N Seyfried
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02167
| | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hasegawa A, Ando T, Kameyama A, Kiso M. Synthetic Studies on Sialoglycoconjugates 40: Stereocontrolled Synthesis of Sialyl Lewis X Epitope and Its Ceramide Derivative. J Carbohydr Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1080/07328309208016154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
25
|
Decken K, Schmitz-Dräger BJ, Rohde D, Nakamura S, Ebert T, Ackermann R. Monoclonal antibody Due ABC 3 directed against transitional cell carcinoma. I. Production, specificity analysis, and preliminary characterization of the antigen. J Urol 1992; 147:235-41. [PMID: 1729539 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)37204-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The development of the hybridoma technology allows the identification of tumor associated antigens with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Employing this technology mAb Due ABC 3 was obtained by immunization of a BALB/c mouse with bladder tumor cell line SW 1710 and subsequent cell fusion of spleen cells with P3. X63.Ag8.653 mouse myeloma cells. MAb Due ABC 3, an IgM antibody, was found to recognize an antigen present in the membrane of tumor cells in 25 out of 28 (89%) transitional cell carcinoma specimens but rarely (three out of 25 specimens, 12%) on normal urothelial cells. Cross reactions were seen with proximal tubular epithelium of the kidney and seven out of 12 renal cell carcinomas examined. Furthermore, the antigen was expressed by granulocytes, some gastrointestinal epithelia, ovarian and breast carcinoma. The antigen recognized by mAb Due ABC 3 was stable to fixation with formaldehyde and paraffin emmbedding, different proteases, alkaline treatment and heat exposure up to 70C. Antigenicity was abandoned by incubation with periodate but not with neuraminidase treatment. The antigen could be extracted with chloroform/methanol suggesting the involvement of a glycolipid. Immuno-thin layer chromatography revealed a single lipid band reacting with mAb Due ABC 3 but not with anti-CD15, directed against the Lewis X antigen. Although not tumor-specific, mAbs directed against differentiation antigens may be of value for the investigation of cell transformations as well as for diagnostic use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Decken
- Department of Urology, University of Düsseldorf, Medical School, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Holgersson J, Jovall PA, Samuelsson BE, Breimer ME. Blood group type glycosphingolipids of human kidneys. Structural characterization of extended globo-series compounds. Glycoconj J 1991; 8:424-33. [PMID: 1841684 DOI: 10.1007/bf00731294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Blood group type glycosphingolipids present in kidneys of blood group A and B human individuals have been isolated and structurally characterized by mass spectrometry, proton NMR spectroscopy, degradation studies and by their reactivity with various monoclonal antibodies and Escherichia coli bacteria. The two major complex glycolipids present in the blood group A and B kidneys were globopentaosylceramide (IV3Gal beta-Gb4Cer) and the X pentaglycosylceramide (III3Fuc alpha-nLc4Cer). The major blood group A glycolipid in the blood group A kidneys was based on the type 4 chain (globo-series). There were also small amounts of the type 2 chain and trace amounts of the type 1 and type 3 chain based A glycolipids. In addition, the blood group H type 4 chain structure was present together with Le(a) and Le(b) compounds. In the blood group B kidneys, the major B glycolipids were monofucosylated hexa- and octaglycosylceramides, where the former were based on the type 2 carbohydrate chain. The blood group B type 4 chain heptaglycosylceramide was found to be a minor component making up only about 1% of the total blood group B structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Holgersson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Hirabayashi Y, Fujita S, Kon K, Ando S. Characterization of a novel Le(x)-active ganglioside from chick intestinal tissues recognized by murine monoclonal antibody 188C1. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)99220-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
|
28
|
Affiliation(s)
- A Kameyama
- Department of Applied Bioorganic Chemistry, Gifu University, Japan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Ravindranath MH, Morton DL. Role of gangliosides in active immunotherapy with melanoma vaccine. Int Rev Immunol 1991; 7:303-29. [PMID: 1779175 DOI: 10.3109/08830189109114877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Among various tumor associated cell surface antigens, gangliosides, the glycosphingolipids that contain sialic acids, offer a variety of epitopes, some of which are preferentially expressed on melanoma cells. These surface components of the bilayered lipid membrane of tumor cells are the targets of active immunotherapy with melanoma vaccine. Purified gangliosides in aqueous solution form micelles and, at high density, form lactones. Their antigenic expression (physical conformation and orientation) on the cell surface is governed by the nature of the sphingosine and the fatty acids they contain. Evidence is accruing to show that the nature of the fatty acid moiety of gangliosides differs in normal and neoplastic cells. Gangliosides per se are not immunogenic and require extrinsic adjuvanticity. Preparation of a melanoma cell vaccine for active immunotherapy requires an understanding of the ganglioside profile of melanoma, the ganglioside-associated heterogeneity of melanoma, and the role of shed melanoma gangliosides in the immunosuppression of cell mediated and humoral immunity. In addition, the role of some of the anti-ganglioside antibodies in the elimination of shed gangliosides, the cytotoxic killing of tumor cells, as well as in the down-regulation of lymphocyte functions must be considered in the formulation of vaccine. Different strategies for augmenting the immunogenicity of melanoma associated gangliosides with melanoma vaccine are evaluated.
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
"New" carbohydrate structures on the surface of or secreted by cancer cells, identified as epitopes by monoclonal antibodies, are reviewed. These structures may represent the accumulation of precursor chains because of decreased activity of synthesizing enzymes, the production of new oligosaccharides due to increased or aberrant glycosylation of carbohydrate chains, a change in density of carbohydrates on the cell surface, or exposure of chains usually covered by other structures. Alterations in glycolipid synthesis include aberrant fucosylation and/or sialyation of the lacto series, sialylation or fucosylation of the globo series, and sialyation of the ganglio series. Many of these carbohydrate epitopes have become useful for the diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring of patients with cancer. Some of the important markers include CA 15.3, CA 19.9, CA 50, CA 125, CA 242, MCA, SLEX, etc. Incomplete glycosylation of O-linked mucin oligosaccharide is recognized as the important "cancer antigen" B72.3, which is sialyated Tn. The oligosaccharide components of alpha-fetoprotein, carcinoembryonic antigen, and epidermal growth factor receptor are also reviewed. In many instances the glycosylation seen in cancer cells or their products reflects patterns seen during normal development. Thus, cancer-associated oligosaccharides are oncodevelopmental in nature. The biologic significance of carbohydrates on cell surfaces is not known, but several possibilities include a role in cell to cell recognition, intracellular processing of glycoproteins, cell activation, and ability of cancer cells to metastasize.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Sell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston 77225
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Koukoulis GK, Radosevich JA, Warren WH, Rosen ST, Gould VE. Immunohistochemical analysis of pulmonary and pleural neoplasms with monoclonal antibodies B72.3 and CSLEX-1. VIRCHOWS ARCHIV. B, CELL PATHOLOGY INCLUDING MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY 1989; 58:427-33. [PMID: 1972825 DOI: 10.1007/bf02890102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Sequential paraffin sections of 222 epithelial lung tumors comprising all common histologic types, and 31 pleural mesotheliomas of all variants were immunostained with monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) B72.3 and CSLEX-1. Reactivity with Mabs B72.3 and CSLEX-1 respectively was noted in 7/57 and 4/57 squamous carcinomas, in 44/70 and 60/70 adenocarcinomas, 9/16 and 11/16 bronchioloalveolar carcinomas, 8/25 and 14/25 large cell undifferentiated carcinomas, 3/3 and 3/3 adenosquamous carcinomas, 0/11 and 0/11 carcinoids, 0/10 and 2/10 well differentiated neuroendocrine (NE) carcinomas, 4/13 and 5/13 intermediate cell NE carcinomas, 0/17 and 0/17 small cell NE carcinomas, and 0/31 and 1/31 mesotheliomas. In most instances, both Mabs stained the same tumors; however, reactivity with CSLEX-1 was more intense and extensive, and involved more cases. Therefore, regardless of conventional histologic type, staining with Mabs B72.3 and CSLEX-1 defines 4 subsets of lung tumors: one expressing both antigens, two expressing one but not the other, and one expressing neither. The possible biological and/or clinical significance of these subsets remains undetermined. When correlated with conventional histologic tumor types, our findings indicate: 1). both of these Mabs recognize most but not all adenocarcinomas and bronchioloalveolar carcinomas, and since CSLEX-1 stained more cases than B72.3, it may be argued that the former is a broader exocrine phenotype marker than the latter; 2). both of these Mabs select exocrine subsets of large cell undifferentiated carcinomas; 3). both of these Mabs stain exocrine cell subpopulations in well differentiated and intermediate cell NE carcinomas but not in carcinoids or small cell NE carcinomas, and 4). except for rare cases, neither B72.3 nor CSLEX-1 reacts with mesotheliomas regardless of variant.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G K Koukoulis
- Department of Pathology, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL 60612
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
A series of disialogangliosides with binary 2→3 sialosyllactosamine structure, defined by monoclonal antibody NUH2, are oncodevelopmentally regulated antigens. J Biol Chem 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)51527-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
33
|
Nagai K, Roberts DD, Toida T, Matsumoto H, Kushi Y, Handa S, Ishizuka I. Mono-sulfated Globopentaosylceramide from Human Kidney. J Biol Chem 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)71611-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
|
34
|
Ladisch S, Sweeley CC, Becker H, Gage D. Aberrant fatty acyl α-hydroxylation in human neuroblastoma tumor gangliosides. J Biol Chem 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)80178-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
|
35
|
Krivan HC, Olson LD, Barile MF, Ginsburg V, Roberts DD. Adhesion of Mycoplasma pneumoniae to Sulfated Glycolipids and Inhibition by Dextran Sulfate. J Biol Chem 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)60527-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
|
36
|
Stults CL, Sweeley CC, Macher BA. Glycosphingolipids: structure, biological source, and properties. Methods Enzymol 1989; 179:167-214. [PMID: 2695766 DOI: 10.1016/0076-6879(89)79122-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
|
37
|
Nudelman ED, Levery SB, Stroud MR, Salyan ME, Abe K, Hakomori S. A novel tumor-associated, developmentally regulated glycolipid antigen defined by monoclonal antibody ACFH-18. J Biol Chem 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)68335-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
|
38
|
Hanisch FG, Mitsakos A, Schroten H, Uhlenbruck G. Biosynthesis of cancer-associated sialyl-X antigen by a (1----3)-alpha-L-fucosyltransferase of human amniotic fluid. Carbohydr Res 1988; 178:23-8. [PMID: 2903795 DOI: 10.1016/0008-6215(88)80099-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Activity of a hitherto unknown (1----3)-alpha-L-fucosyltransferase that acts on IV3-alpha-NeuAc-nLcOseCer as acceptor substrate was demonstrated in human amniotic fluid. The 14C-labelled product IV3-alpha-NeuAc-III3-alpha-Fuc-nLcOseCer was detected autoradiographically after t.l.c. and identified after desialylation by immunostaining with monoclonal antibody Leu Ml. The enzyme is assumed also to catalyze the last step in the biosynthesis of sialyl-X antigen carried by mucins in human amniotic fluid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F G Hanisch
- Abteilung für Immunbiologie, 1. Medizinische Universitätsklinik, Köln, Federal Republik of Germany
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Levery SB, Nudelman E, Kannagi R, Symington FW, Andersen NH, Clausen H, Baldwin M, Hakomori S. 1H-n.m.r. analysis of type-2 chain lacto-gangliosides. Confirmation of structure of a novel cancer-associated fucoganglioside, alpha-NeuAc-(2----6)- beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-beta-D-GlcpNAc-(1----3)-beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-[alp ha-L- Fucp-(1----3)]-beta-D-GlcpNAc-(1----3)-beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-beta -D-Glc p- (1----1)-Cer (VI6NeuAcIII3FucnLc6Cer). Carbohydr Res 1988; 178:121-44. [PMID: 3191505 DOI: 10.1016/0008-6215(88)80106-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Neolacto-glycosphingolipids, substituted with alpha-NeuAc-(2----3)- and -(2----6)-linked D-Galp residues were analyzed by one- and two-dimensional 1H-n.m.r. spectroscopy at 500 MHz in 49:1 (v/v) di(2H3)methyl sulfoxide-deuterium oxide solution. For the simplest structures analyzed, nLc4Cer, IV3NeuAcnLc4Cer, and IV6NeuAcnLc4Cer, sialosylation-induced changes in shifts of terminal and subterminal core residues were interpretable in terms of existing conformational models. Chemical shifts for H-3e and H-3a of NeuAc characteristic for the type of linkage, were also determined. In addition, regularly reproducible shifts were seen for H-1 and other resonances of terminal and subterminal core residues of all structures tested. Chemical-shift correlations proved to be useful in elucidating the structure of a unique ganglioside bearing an internal beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-[alpha-L-Fucp-(1----3)]-beta-D-GlcpNAc-(1---- 3) residue ("X-trisaccharide") with an alpha-NeuAc-(2----6)-substituted terminal group.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S B Levery
- Program of Biochemical Oncology/Membrane Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
|
41
|
Zopf D, Hansson GC. The chemical basis for expression of the sialyl-Le(a) antigen. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1988; 228:657-76. [PMID: 3051923 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1663-3_26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The SLe(a) antigen, originally defined by monoclonal antibody 19-9, is a complex carbohydrate epitope that differs from the normal human blood group Lea antigen only by the presence of an additional sialic acid residue. SLe(a)-active oligosaccharides occur in both gangliosides and mucin-like glycoproteins in developing embryonic gut, as well as in many normal adult glandular tissues and secretions, but the antigen is virtually absent from normal adult gastrointestinal lumenal epithelial cells. Following malignant transformation of adult gastrointestinal lining epithelium and many other endodermally-derived glandular epithelia, SLe(a)-active mucins released from the ensuing tumor appear in blood plasma. The level of circulating SLe(a) antigen is currently being investigated as a means of following tumor recurrence, progression, and therapy. Recent studies on the biosynthesis of SLe(a) explain the observations that, 1) the antigen does not occur in individuals of Le(a-b-) blood group, and 2) individuals that belong to the Le(a+b-) blood group express SLe(a) more strongly than Le(a-b+) individuals. Further, the biosynthetic studies predict a new tumor antigen, NeuAc alpha 2-3Gal beta 1-3GlcNAc beta 1.... (the immediate precursor to SLe(a)) that should be expressed in Le(a-b-) individuals in nearly the same tissue distribution as found for the SLe(a) antigen in Le(a+b-) and Le(a-b+) individuals. Based upon studies of SLe(a) expression in normal saliva and the pathway for biosynthesis of SLe(a), it seems likely that future clinical studies could be profitably directed towards improving the predictive value of the plasma SLe(a) level by adjusting the quantitative results according to the Lewis blood group and ABH secretor phenotype of the individual patient.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Zopf
- Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
The GDP-fucose:N-acetylglucosaminide 3-alpha-L-fucosyltransferases of LEC11 and LEC12 Chinese hamster ovary mutants exhibit novel specificities for glycolipid substrates. J Biol Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)45459-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
43
|
Yurewicz E, Matsuura F, Moghissi K. Structural studies of sialylated oligosaccharides of human midcycle cervical mucin. J Biol Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)61257-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
44
|
Abstract
A number of experimental animal tumors as well as human cancers have been characterized by dramatic changes of glycolipid composition and metabolism. This review focuses on the chemical and enzymatic basis of the appearance of tumor-associated glycolipid antigens belonging to four major structural classes, i.e., globo, ganglio, lacto type 1, and lacto type 2 series. Some antigens represent the accumulation of precursors with deletion of more complex glycolipids, and others are the result of enhanced synthesis of new structures, most of which are aberrant fucosylation or sialylation or their combination; thus, novel structures such as di- or trimeric Le chi, trifucosyl Le gamma, sialyl Le chi, sialyl dimeric Le chi and disialyl Le alpha A have been isolated and characterized. Many monoclonal antibodies are capable of recognizing antigens in high density but are not capable of reacting with the same antigen in low density. Therefore, the expression of novel structures in high densities at the cell surface is important for recognition of tumor-association antigens. Molecular models of a typical tumor-associated antigen and its organization in membranes are also presented.
Collapse
|
45
|
Roberts DD, Liotta LA, Ginsburg V. Gangliosides indirectly inhibit the binding of laminin to sulfatides. Arch Biochem Biophys 1986; 250:498-504. [PMID: 3777945 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(86)90754-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Laminin, a glycoprotein of basement membranes, agglutinates aldehyde-fixed erythrocytes. Laminin-mediated hemagglutination is strongly inhibited by some gangliosides and anionic phospholipids. Laminin, however, binds only to sulfatides among the lipids extracted from erythrocytes. We now report that gangliosides are remarkably potent inhibitors of laminin binding to sulfatides when both lipids are adsorbed on plastic. A 50% inhibition of laminin binding to 100 ng of sulfatides is obtained with 10 ng of GM3 and 8 ng of GM1, respectively. Mixing of sulfatides with neutral glycolipids, phosphatidyl choline, or cholesterol does not inhibit laminin binding, whereas mixing with sulfatide-depleted erythrocyte lipids enhances binding. Inhibition of binding by gangliosides is not due to competition for adsorption to the plastic, as preincubation of the adsorbed lipids with neuraminidase reverses inhibition by GM3, but not by GM1 which is not a substrate for the enzyme. These results are consistent with the observations that treatment of fixed erythrocytes with neuraminidase increases their agglutinability by laminin and that pretreatment of erythrocytes with gangliosides followed by washing gives similar inhibition as seen when gangliosides are present as competitive inhibitors. Thus, inhibition of laminin-mediated agglutination by gangliosides probably results from masking of erythrocyte sulfatides due to adsorption of gangliosides onto the membrane rather than from a direct competition for laminin binding sites.
Collapse
|
46
|
Lægreid A, Otnæss ABK, Bryn K. Purification of human milk gangliosides by silica gel chromatography and analysis of trifluoroacetate derivatives by gas chromatography. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)80761-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
47
|
Månsson JE, Fredman P, Nilsson O, Lindholm L, Holmgren J, Svennerholm L. Chemical structure of carcinoma ganglioside antigens defined by monoclonal antibody C-50 and some allied gangliosides of human pancreatic adenocarcinoma. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1985; 834:110-7. [PMID: 3978112 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2760(85)90182-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A hybridoma, C-50, obtained by fusion of mouse myeloma cells with spleen cells from a mouse immunized with cells from the colorectal carcinoma cell line COLO 205, produced antibodies that detected ganglioside antigen in human adenocarcinomas in many organs. The major ganglioside antigen fraction isolated from liver metastases of a pancreatic adenocarcinoma, behaving as a homogenous band on thin-layer chromatography, consisted of three different gangliosides. One of them, A (25%), had the same carbohydrate structure as the ganglioside antigen defined by monoclonal antibody 19-9, NeuAc alpha 2-3Gal beta 1-3(Fuc alpha 1-4)GlcNAc beta 1-3Gal beta 1-4Glc-Cer(Fuc-3'-isoLM1) Magnani, J.L., Nilsson, B., Brockhaus, M., Zopf, D., Steplewski, Z., Koprowski, H. and Ginsburg, V. (1982) J. Biol. Chem. 257, 14365-14369). The major ganglioside, B (60%), was the isomeric hexasaccharide ganglioside (NeuAc alpha 2-3Gal beta 1-4(Fuc alpha 1-3)GlcNAc beta 1-3-Gal beta 1-4Glc-Cer(Fuc-3'-LM1) and the third ganglioside, C, was 6'-LM1, NeuAc alpha 2-6Gal beta 1-4GlcNAc beta 1-3Gal beta 1-4Glc-Cer (15%). Ganglioside B, isolated from human kidney, did not react with the C-50 MAb. Based on this result and on studies of COLO 205 cell induced tumours where the ganglioside antigen fraction only consisted of A, it is suggested that the C-50 MAb defines an antigen determinant present in A.
Collapse
|
48
|
|
49
|
Higashi H, Basu M, Basu S. Biosynthesis in vitro of disialosylneolactotetraosylceramide by a solubilized sialyltransferase from embryonic chicken brain. J Biol Chem 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(20)71172-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
|
50
|
|