Photochemical labeling and inhibition of Na,K-ATPase by 2-Azido-ATP. Identification of an amino acid located within the ATP binding site

Characterisation of ATP analogues to cross-link and label P2X receptors

P2X receptors are a distinct family of ATP-gated ion channels with a number of physiological roles ranging from smooth muscle contractility to the regulation of blood clotting. In this study we determined whether the UV light-reactive ATP analogues 2-azido ATP, ATP azidoanilide (ATP-AA) and 2′,3′-O-(4-benzoylbenzoyl)-ATP (BzATP) can be used to label the ATP binding site of P2X1 receptors. These analogues were agonists, and in patch clamp studies evoked inward currents from HEK293 cells stably expressing the P2X1 receptor. Following irradiation in the presence of these compounds subsequent responses to an EC₅₀ concentration of ATP were reduced by >65%. These effects were partially reversed by co-application of ATP or suramin with the photo-reactive ATP analogue at the time of irradiation. In autoradiographic studies radiolabelled 2-azido [γ³²P] ATP and ATP-AA-[γ³²P] cross-linked to P2X1 receptors and this binding was reduced by co-incubation with ATP. These studies demonstrate that photo-reactive ATP analogues can be used to label P2X receptor and may prove useful in elucidating the ATP binding site at this novel class of ATP binding proteins.

The beta4-beta8 groove is an ATP-interactive site in the alpha crystallin core domain of the small heat shock protein, human alphaB crystallin

The site for ATP interactions in human alphaB crystallin, the archetype of small heat-shock proteins, was identified and characterized to resolve the controversial role of ATP in the function of small heat-shock proteins. Comparative sequence alignments identified the alphaB crystallin sequence, (82)KHFSPEELKVKVLGD(96) as a Walker-B ATP-binding motif that is found in several ATP-binding proteins, including five molecular chaperones. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer and mass spectrometry using a novel fluorescent ATP analog, 8-azido-ATP-[gamma]-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid-5(2-aminoethylamide) (azido-ATP-EDANS) and a cysteine mutant of human alphaB crystallin (S135C) conjugated with a fluorescent acceptor, eosin-5-maleimide (EMA) identified the beta4-beta8 groove as the ATP interactive site in alphaB crystallin. A 44% decrease in the emitted fluorescence of azido-ATP-EDANS at the absorption maximum of S135C-EMA and a corresponding 50% increase in the fluorescence emission of S135C-EMA indicated a close spatial relationship between azido-ATP-EDANS and the center of the beta8 strand ((131)LTITSSLS(138)). Liquid chromatography, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry identified two peptide fragments of the alphaB crystallin Walker-B motif photo-affinity-labeled with azido-ATP-EDANS confirming the beta4-beta8 groove as an ATP interactive site. The results presented here clearly establish the beta4-beta8 groove as the ATP interactive region in alphaB crystallin, and are in contrast to the existing paradigm that classifies small heat-shock proteins as ATP-independent chaperones.

ATP-binding to P-type ATPases as revealed by biochemical, spectroscopic, and crystallographic experiments

P-type ATPases form a large family of cation translocating ATPases. Recent progress in crystallography yielded several high-resolution structures of Ca(2+)-ATPase from sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum (SERCA) in various conformations. They could elucidate the conformational changes of the enzyme, which are necessary for the translocation of cations, or the mechanism that explains how the nucleotide binding is coupled to the cation transport. However, crystals of proteins are usually obtained only under conditions that significantly differ from the physiological ones and with ligands that are incompatible with the enzyme function, and both of these factors can inevitably influence the enzyme structure. Biochemical (such as mutagenesis, cleavage, and labeling) or spectroscopic experiments can yield only limited structural information, but this information could be considered relevant, because measurement can be performed under physiological conditions and with true ligands. However, interpretation of some biochemical or spectroscopic data could be difficult without precise knowledge of the structure. Thus, only a combination of both these approaches can extract the relevant information and identify artifacts. Briefly, there is good agreement between crystallographic and other experimental data concerning the overall shape of the molecule and the movement of cytoplasmic domains. On the contrary, the E1-AMPPCP crystallographic structure is, in details, in severe conflict with numerous spectroscopic experiments and probably does not represent the physiological state. Notably, the E1-ADP-AlF(4) structure is almost identical to the E1-AMPPCP, again suggesting that the structure is primarily determined by the crystal-growth conditions. The physiological relevance of the E2 and E2-P structures is also questionable, because the crystals were prepared in the presence of thapsigargin, which is known to be a very efficient inhibitor of SERCA. Thus, probably only crystals of E1-2Ca conformation could reflect some physiological state. Combination of biochemical, spectroscopic, and crystallographic data revealed amino acids that are responsible for the interaction with the nucleotide. High sequence homology of the P-type ATPases in the cytoplasmic domains enables prediction of the ATP-interacting amino acids also for other P-type ATPases.

Inactivation of Na,K-ATPase following Co(NH3)4ATP binding at a low affinity site in the protomeric enzyme unit

The Na(+)-dependent or E1 stages of the Na,K-ATPase reaction require a few micromolar ATP, but submillimolar concentrations are needed to accelerate the K(+)-dependent or E2 half of the cycle. Here we use Co(NH(3))(4)ATP as a tool to study ATP sites in Na,K-ATPase. The analogue inactivates the K(+) phosphatase activity (an E2 partial reaction) and the Na,K-ATPase activity in parallel, whereas ATP-[(3)H]ADP exchange (an E1 reaction) is affected less or not at all. Although the inactivation occurs as a consequence of low affinity Co(NH(3))(4)ATP binding (K(D) approximately 0.4-0.6 mm), we can also measure high affinity equilibrium binding of Co(NH(3))(4)[(3)H]ATP (K(D) = 0.1 micro m) to the native enzyme. Crucially, we find that covalent enzyme modification with fluorescein isothiocyanate (which blocks E1 reactions) causes little or no effect on the affinity of the binding step preceding Co(NH(3))(4)ATP inactivation and only a 20% decrease in maximal inactivation rate. This suggests that fluorescein isothiocyanate and Co(NH(3))(4)ATP bind within different enzyme pockets. The Co(NH(3))(4)ATP enzyme was solubilized with C(12)E(8) to a homogeneous population of alphabeta protomers, as verified by analytical ultracentrifugation; the solubilization did not increase the Na,K-ATPase activity of the Co(NH(3))(4)ATP enzyme with respect to parallel controls. This was contrary to the expectation for a hypothetical (alphabeta)(2) membrane dimer with a single ATP site per protomer, with or without fast dimer/protomer equilibrium in detergent solution. Besides, the solubilized alphabeta protomer could be directly inactivated by Co(NH(3))(4)ATP, to less than 10% of the control Na,K-ATPase activity. This suggests that the inactivation must follow Co(NH(3))(4)ATP binding at a low affinity site in every protomeric unit, thus still allowing ATP and ADP access to phosphorylation and high affinity ATP sites.

The sodium pump. Its molecular properties and mechanics of ion transport

The sodium pump (Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase; sodium- and potassium-activated adenosine 5'-triphosphatase; EC 3.6.1.37) has been under investigation for more than four decades. During this time, the knowledge about the structure and properties of the enzyme has increased to such an extent that specialized groups have formed within this field that focus on specific aspects of the active ion transport catalyzed by this enzyme. Taking this into account, this review, while somewhat speculative, is an attempt to summarize the information regarding the enzymology of the sodium pump with the hope of providing to interested readers from outside the field a concentrated overview and to readers from related fields a guide in their search for gathering specific information concerning the structure, function, and enzymology of this enzyme.

Modeling a dehalogenase fold into the 8-A density map for Ca(2+)-ATPase defines a new domain structure

Members of the large family of P-type pumps use active transport to maintain gradients of a wide variety of cations across cellular membranes. Recent structures of two P-type pumps at 8-A resolution have revealed the arrangement of transmembrane helices but were insufficient to reveal the architecture of the cytoplasmic domains. However, recent proposals of a structural homology with a superfamily of hydrolases offer a new basis for modeling these domains. In the current work, we have extended the sequence comparison for the superfamily and delineated domains in the 8-A density map of Ca(2+)-ATPase. The homology suggests a new domain structure for Ca(2+)-ATPase and, specifically, that the phosphorylation domain adopts a Rossman fold. Accordingly, the atomic structure of L-2 haloacid dehalogenase has been fitted into the relevant domain of Ca(2+)-ATPase. The resulting model suggests the existence of two ATP sites at the interface between two domains. Based on this new model, we are able to reconcile numerous results of mutagenesis and chemical cross-linking within the catalytic domains. Furthermore, we have used the model to predict the configuration of Mg.ATP at its binding site. Based on this prediction, we propose a mechanism, involving a change in Mg(2+) liganding, for initiating the domain movements that couple sites of ion transport to ATP hydrolysis.

Catalytic activity of an isolated domain of Na,K-ATPase expressed in Escherichia coli

Fusion proteins of glutathione-S-transferase and fragments from the large cytoplasmic domain of the sheep Na,K-ATPase alpha1-subunit were expressed in Escherichia coli. The Na,K-ATPase sequences begin at Ala345 and terminate at either Arg600 (DP600f), Thr610 (DP610f), Gly731 (DP731f), or Glu779 (DP779f). After affinity purification on glutathione-Sepharose, the fusion proteins were labeled with [alpha-32P]-2-N3-ATP, and incorporation of the radiolabel into the fusion proteins was measured by scintillation counting after sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Kd values of 220-290 microM for 2-N3-ATP binding to the fusion proteins were obtained from the photolabeling experiments. Approximately 1 mol of 2-N3-ATP was calculated to be incorporated per mole of fusion protein after correction for photochemical incorporation efficiency. Labeling of all of the fusion proteins by 25 microM 2-N3-ATP was reduced in the presence of MgATP, Na2ATP, MgCl2, 2',3'-O-(2,4, 6-trinitrophenyl)-ATP, and p-nitrophenylphosphate, and Ki values of 2-11 mM for Na2ATP, 0.2-5 mM for MgCl2, 0.1-5 mM for MgATP, and 20-300 microM for p-nitrophenylphosphate were calculated for these ligands. All of the fusion proteins catalyze the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenylphosphate. The reaction requires MgCl2 and is inhibited by inorganic phosphate, which is similar to the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenylphosphate by native Na,K-ATPase. Based on these observations, it appears that the soluble fragments from the large cytoplasmic domain of Na,K-ATPase expressed in bacterial cells are folded in an E2-like conformation and are likely to retain much of the native structure.

The energy transduction mechanism of Na,K-ATPase studied with iron-catalyzed oxidative cleavage

This paper extends our recent report on specific iron-catalyzed oxidative cleavages of renal Na,K-ATPase and effects of E1 left arrow over right arrow E2 conformational transitions (Goldshleger, R. , and Karlish, S. J. D. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 94, 9596-9601). The experiments indicate that only peptide bonds close to a bound Fe2+ ion are cleaved, and provide evidence on proximity of the different cleavage positions in the native enzyme. A sequence HFIH near trans-membrane segment M3 appears to be involved in Fe2+ binding. Previously we hypothesized that E2 and E1 conformations are characterized by formation or relaxation of interactions within the alpha subunit at or near highly conserved sequences, TGES in the minor cytoplasmic loop and CSDK, MVTGD, and VNDSPALKK in the major cytoplasmic loop. This concept has been tested by examining iron-catalyzed cleavage in both non-phosphorylated and phosphorylated conformations and effects of phosphate, vanadate, and ouabain. The results imply that both E1 left arrow over right arrow E2 and E1P left arrow over right arrow E2P transitions are indeed associated with formation and relaxation of interactions between cytoplasmic domains, comprising the minor loop plus N-terminal tail leading into M1 and major loop, respectively. Furthermore, it appears that either non-covalently or covalently bound phosphate bind near CSDK and MVTGD, and Mg2+ ions may bind to residues within TGES and VNDSPALKK and to bound phosphate. Thus cytoplasmic domain interactions seem to occur within or near the active site. We discuss the relationship between structural changes in the cytoplasmic domain and movements of trans-membrane segments that lead to cation transport. Presumably conformation-dependent formation and relaxation of domain interactions underlie energy transduction in all P-type pumps.

Microenvironment of the high affinity ATP-binding site of Na+/K+-ATPase is slightly acidic

Fluorescein-5'-isothiocyanate (FITC) was used to study the high-affinity ATP-binding site of Na+/K+-ATPase. The molar ratio of specifically bound FITC per alpha-subunit of Na+/K+-ATPase was found to be 0.5 as followed from pretreatment experiments with another specific E1ATP-inhibitor Cr(H2O)4AdoPP[CH2]P. This indicated an existence of one high affinity ATP-binding site (E1ATP-binding site) in the native (alphabeta)2-diprotomer of Na+/K+-ATPase. Fluorescence dual-excitation ratio of specifically bound FITC revealed that at external pH 7.5, the pH value inside the E1ATP-binding site is 6.95 +/- 0.18. In addition, FITC fluorescence quenching by anti-fluorescein and by iodide choline indicated the limited access of water into the small pocket of the E1ATP-binding site.

Affinity labeling of two nucleotide sites on Na,K-ATPase using 2'(3')-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)8-azidoadenosine 5'-[alpha-32P]diphosphate (TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP) as a photoactivatable probe. Label incorporation before and after blocking the high affinity ATP site with fluorescein isothiocyanate

ATP and its analogues act on the minimal functional unit of Na, K-ATPase, the alpha beta protomer, with high and low affinity effects. Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) irreversibly blocks the high affinity, or catalytic, ATP site, and yet the surviving K+-phosphatase activity of soluble FITC-modified alphabeta protomers can be photoinactivated by 2'(3')-O-trinitrophenyl (TNP)-8N3-ADP (Ward, D. G., and Cavieres, J. D. (1998) J. Biol. Chem. 273, 14277-14284). We have now used TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP as a photoaffinity label for Na,K-ATPase. The native enzyme can be photolabeled at 5 microM TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP, and ATP or FITC treatment prevents labeling of the alpha chain. At 25 microM, however, TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP can be incorporated in the FITC-modified alpha chain, concurrently with the inactivation of the K+-phosphatase activity, to an extrapolated level of 0.5-1.2 mol of 32P-probe per mol of alpha chain. Photoinactivation and labeling are prevented by TNP-ADP, vanadate, or strophanthidin and are promoted by Na+ or Mg2+, but not K+. The cation effects suggest that the fluorescein-modified enzyme incorporates the TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP. Mg complex preferentially, and the free probe when in the E1 enzyme form and after occupation of a low-affinity Na+ site. Partial trypsinolysis reveals that the point of TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP attachment is on the C-terminal 58-kDa fragment of the FITC-modified alpha chain. The affinity labeling of the fluorescein enzyme by TNP-8N3-[alpha-32P]ADP endorses the view that two nucleotide sites can be occupied simultaneously in each alpha subunit of Na,K-ATPase.

Erythrosin 5'-isothiocyanate labels Cys549 as part of the low-affinity ATP binding site of Na+/K+-ATPase

The high-affinity E1ATP site of Na+/K+-ATPase labeled with fluorescein 5'-isothiocyanate and its E2ATP site labeled with erythrosin 5'-isothiocyanate (ErITC), as was shown recently [Linnertz et al. (1998) J. Biol. Chem. 273, 28813-28821], reside on separate and adjacent catalytic alpha subunits. This paper provides evidence that specific labeling of the E2ATP binding site with ErITC resulted in a modification of the Cys549 residue in the tryptic fragment with the sequence Val545-Leu-Gly-Phe-Cys549-His550. Hence, Cys549 is part of or close to the low-affinity E2ATP binding site of Na+/K+-ATPase.

Molecular distance measurements reveal an (alpha beta)2 dimeric structure of Na+/K+-ATPase. High affinity ATP binding site and K+-activated phosphatase reside on different alpha-subunits

ATP hydrolysis by Na+/K+-ATPase proceeds via the interaction of simultaneously existing and cooperating high (E1ATP) and low (E2ATP) substrate binding sites. It is unclear whether both ATP sites reside on the same or on different catalytic alpha-subunits. To answer this question, we looked for a fluorescent label for the E2ATP site that would be suitable for distance measurements by Förster energy transfer after affinity labeling of the E1ATP site by fluorescein 5'-isothiocyanate (FITC). Erythrosin 5'-isothiocyanate (ErITC) inactivated, in an E1ATP site-blocked enzyme (by FITC), the residual activity of the E2ATP site, namely K+-activated p-nitrophenylphosphatase in a concentration-dependent way that was ATP-protectable. The molar ratios of FITC/alpha-subunit of 0.6 and of ErITC/alpha-subunit of 0.48 indicate 2 ATP sites per (alpha beta)2 diprotomer. Measurements of Förster energy transfer between the FITC-labeled E1ATP and the ErITC-labeled or Co(NH3)4ATP-inactivated E2ATP sites gave a distance of 6.45 +/- 0.64 nm. This distance excludes 2 ATP sites per alpha-subunit since the diameter of alpha is 4-5 nm. Förster energy transfer between cardiac glycoside binding sites labeled with anthroylouabain and fluoresceinylethylenediamino ouabain gave a distance of 4.9 +/- 0.5 nm. Hence all data are consistent with the hypothesis that Na+/K+-ATPase in cellular membranes is an (alpha beta)2 diprotomer and works as a functional dimer (Thoenges, D., and Schoner, W. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 16315-16321).

Photoinactivation of fluorescein isothiocyanate-modified Na,K-ATPase by 2'(3')-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)8-azidoadenosine 5'-diphosphate. Abolition of E1 and E2 partial reactions by sequential block of high and low affinity nucleotide sites

The Na,K-ATPase activity of the sodium pump exhibits apparent multisite kinetics toward ATP, a feature that is inherent to the minimal enzyme unit, the alpha beta protomer. We have argued that this should arise from separate catalytic and noncatalytic sites on the alpha beta protomer as fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) blocks a high affinity ATP site on all alpha subunits and yet the modified Na, K-ATPase retains a low affinity response to nucleotides (Ward, D. G., and Cavieres, J. D. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 12317-12321). We now find that 2'(3')-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)8-azido-adenosine 5'-diphosphate (TNP-8N3-ADP), a high affinity photoactivatable analogue of ATP, can inhibit the K+-phosphatase activity of the FITC-modified enzyme during assays in dimmed light. The inhibition occurs with a Ki of 140 microM at 20 mM K+; it requires the adenine ring as 2'(3')-O-(2,4 6-trinitrophenyl) (TNP)-UDP or TNP-uridine are less potent and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene-sulfonate is ineffective. Under irradiation with UV light, TNP-8N3-ADP inactivates the K+-phosphatase activity of the fluorescein-enzyme and also its phosphorylation by [32P]Pi. The photoinactivation process is stimulated by Na+ or Mg2+, and is inhibited by K+ or excess TNP-ADP. In the presence of 50 mM Na+ and 1 mM Mg2+, TNP-8N3-ADP photoinactivates with a K0.5 of 15 microM. Furthermore, TNP-8N3-ADP photoinactivates the FITC-modified, solubilized alpha beta protomers, even more effectively than the membrane-bound fluorescein-enzyme. These results strongly suggest that catalytic and allosteric ATP sites coexist on the alpha beta protomer of Na,K-ATPase.

Characterization of a protease-resistant domain of the cytosolic portion of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase. Nucleotide- and metal-binding sites

Treatment of rabbit sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase with a variety of proteases, including elastase, proteinase K, and endoproteinases Asp-N and Glu-C, results in accumulation of soluble fragments starting close to the ATPase phosphorylation site Asp351 and ending in the Lys605-Arg615 region, well before the conserved sequences generally described as constituting the "hinge" region of this P-type ATPase (residues 670-760). These fragments, designated as p29/30, presumably originate from a relatively compact domain of the cytoplasmic head of the ATPase. They retain two structural characteristics of intact Ca2+-ATPase as follows: high sensitivity of peptidic bond Arg505-Ala506 to trypsin cleavage, and high reactivity of lysine residue Lys515 toward the fluorescent label fluorescein 5'-isothiocyanate. Regarding functional properties, these fragments retain the ability to bind nucleotides, although with reduced affinity compared with intact Ca2+-ATPase. The fragments also bind Nd3+ ions, leaving open the possibility that these fragments could contain the metal-binding site(s) responsible for the inhibitory effect of lanthanide ions on ATPase activity. The p29/30 soluble domain, like similar proteolytic fragments that can be obtained from other P-type ATPases, may be useful for obtaining three-dimensional structural information on the cytosolic portion of these ATPases, with or without bound nucleotides. From our findings we infer that a real hinge region with conformational flexibility is located at the C-terminal boundary of p29/30 (rather than in the conserved region of residues 670-760); we also propose that the ATP-binding cleft is mainly located within the p29/30 domain, with the phosphorylation site strategically located at the N-terminal border of this domain.

8-Azido-nucleotides as substrates of Torpedo electric organ apyrase. effect of photoactivation on apyrase activity

Ecto-apyrase is a widespread enzymatic activity that hydrolyses tri- and diphosphonucleotides and consequently controls the amount of available extracellular ATP and ADP. In the nervous system, purines have important neuromodulatory actions, acting at pre- and postsynaptic sites, and consequently, ecto-apyrase may play an indirect role in the modulation of nucleotide- and nucleoside-mediated processes. The azido-nucleotides have been largely employed to characterize the nucleotide binding sites of several proteins. In the present work the azido-nucleotides are described as putative substrates for apyrase activity in a presynaptic plasma membrane preparation (PSPM) from the Torpedo electric organ. Both 8-N3-ATP and 8-N3-ADP were hydrolyzed in a calcium-dependent manner showing Vmax of 23.8 +/- 4.8 and 14.5 +/- 3 U/mg of protein, and Km values (in microM) of 116 +/- 39 and 119 +/- 4, respectively. Vmax for calcium-dependent hydrolysis of ATP and ADP were significantly higher: 59.2 +/- 3.9 and 32.9 +/- 3.5 U/mg of protein respectively, while Km values did not show any significant differences regarding azido-nucleotides: 83.8 +/- 12 microM for Ca2+-ATP and 121 +/- 34 microM for Ca2+-ADP. The photoactivation of the PSPM in the presence of the azido-derivatives results in an irreversible inactivation of apyrase activity, showing an IC50 of 10 microM and a maximal inhibitory effect of 38 and 60% on Ca2+-ATPase and Ca2+-ADPase activities. Apyrase was protected from inactivation by nucleotides that are natural substrates for this enzymatic activity and also by AMP while adenosine did not protect from apyrase inhibition.

Transmembrane topology of alpha- and beta-subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase derived from beta-galactosidase fusion proteins expressed in yeast

Various models of the transmembrane topology of the Na+,K+-ATPase predict either 8 or 10 membrane spans for the alpha-subunit and one to three membrane spans for the beta-subunit. Structure/function analysis, however, requires precise knowledge about the folding of enzymes. Therefore, the intention of this work was to establish a transmembrane topology model for the subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase. The bacterial enzyme beta-galactosidase was fused to the C termini of truncated alpha- and beta-subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase. Fusions were generated at Arg60 (LTTAR60), Glu116 (AATEE116), Ala247 (VEGTA247), Leu311 (YTWEL311), Ala444 (VAGDA444), Ala789 (IFIIA789), Met809 (LGTDM809), Asp884 (RVTWD884), Ile946 (MKNKI946), and Arg972 (GVALR972) of the sheep alpha1-subunit and at Pro236 (LGGYP236) of the dog beta-subunit. The fusion constructs were expressed in yeast cells for studies on the localization of the fused reporter enzyme. Activity measurements of the reporter enzyme revealed that only intracellular fusion sites lead to active beta-galactosidase. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy with cells expressing alpha1/beta-galactosidase and beta/beta-galactosidase hybrid proteins demonstrated that inactive beta-galactosidase is associated with the yeast plasma membrane and can be detected from the extracellular side. The data obtained suggest that Pro236 of the beta-subunit is located on the extracellular surface, corresponding to a model with one transmembrane segment, and that the alpha-subunit of the Na+,K+-ATPase consists of 10 membrane-associated spans. They also suggest that a stretch of the alpha1-subunit between membrane spans M7 and M8 might be hidden within the membrane, surrounded by the other hydrophobic spans, in analogy to the P-loop of Na+ or K+ channels and to the "hourglass" structure of water channels.

Binding of 2'(3')-O-(2,4-6-trinitrophenyl) ADP to soluble alpha beta protomers of Na, K-ATPase modified with fluorescein isothiocyanate. Evidence for two distinct nucleotide sites

The overall reaction of well-defined solubilized protomers of Na,K-ATPase (one alpha plus one beta subunit) retains the dual ATP dependence observed with the membrane-bound enzyme, with distinctive ATP effects in the submicromolar and submillimolar ranges (Ward, D. G., and Cavieres, J. D. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 90, 5332-5336). We have now found that the K+/-phosphatase activity of the alpha beta protomers is still inhibited by 2'(3')-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)adenosine 5'-diphosphate (TNP-ADP). What is most significant is that the TNP-ADP effect can be observed clearly with protomeric enzyme whose high affinity ATP site has been blocked covalently with fluorescein isothiocyanate. We conclude that nucleotides can bind at two discrete sites in each protomeric unit of Na,K-ATPase.

Photoaffinity labeling of the active site of the Na+/K(+)-ATPase with 4-azido-2-nitrophenyl phosphate

Na+/K(+)-ATPase will hydrolyze small acylphosphates such as p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP) in addition to ATP and can derive sufficient energy from the hydrolysis of these small molecules to catalyze active ion transport. In this report, 4-azido-2-nitrophenyl phosphate (ANPP), a photoreactive analog of pNPP, was used as a probe of the substrate binding site of dog renal Na+/K(+)-ATPase. ANPP was slowly hydrolyzed by Na+/K(+)-ATPase with a Vmax of 0.19 mumol mg-1 min-1 and with an apparent Km of 1.0 mM. The Km for hydrolysis of pNPP was 1.7 mM. ANPP competitively inhibited the hydrolysis of pNPP with a Ki of 0.37 mM. Both the ATPase and pNPPase activity of the Na+/K(+)-ATPase were irreversibly inhibited after photolysis of the enzyme and ANPP with UV light, although neither activity was completely inhibited by up to 200 microM ANPP. Inhibition of activity was prevented by including 0.2 mM ATP in the reaction or by excluding Mg2+ from the photolysis buffer. Photolysis with [32P]ANPP labeled only the alpha subunit of the Na+/K(+)-ATPase, and the amount of labeling was substantially reduced by 0.2 mM ATP or in the absence of Mg2+. The stoichiometry of labeling extrapolated to a maximum of about 1.2 nmol/mg of protein at 100% inhibition of Mg(2+)-dependent activity. Limited proteolytic digestion showed labeling sites on nonoverlapping tryptic peptides derived from the alpha subunit of Na+/K(+)-ATPase, and two radiolabeled peptides were purified from an exhaustive tryptic digest of [32P]ANPP-labeled Na+/K(+)-ATPase. One peptide contained amino acids Met-379 to Lys-406, and the second contained amino acids Ala-655 to Lys-676. Amino acids corresponding to Asn-398 and Pro-668 were missing from the sequences and may represent residues derivatized by ANPP from within the substrate binding site of Na+/K(+)-ATPase.

The influence of beta subunit structure on the interaction of Na+/K(+)-ATPase complexes with Na+. A chimeric beta subunit reduces the Na+ dependence of phosphoenzyme formation from ATP

High-affinity ouabain binding to Na+/K(+)-ATPase (sodium- and potassium-transport adenosine triphosphatase (EC 3.6.1.37)) requires phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of the enzyme either by ATP or by inorganic phosphate. For the native enzyme (alpha/beta 1), the ATP-dependent reaction proceeds about 4-fold more slowly in the absence of Na+ than when saturating concentrations of Na+ are present. Hybrid pumps were formed from either the alpha 1 or the alpha 3 subunit isoforms of Na+/K(+)-ATPase and a chimeric beta subunit containing the transmembrane segment of the Na+/K(+)-ATPase beta 1 isoform and the external domain of the gastric H+/K(+)-ATPase beta subunit (alpha/NH beta 1 complexes). In the absence of Na+, these complexes show a rate of ATP-dependent ouabain binding from approximately 75-100% of the rate seen in the presence of Na+ depending on buffer conditions. Nonhydrolyzable nucleotides or treatment of ATP with apyrase abolishes ouabain binding, demonstrating that ouabain binding to alpha/NH beta 1 complexes requires phosphorylation of the protein. Buffer ions inhibit ouabain binding by alpha/NH beta 1 in the absence of Na+ rather than promote ouabain binding, indicating that they are not substituting for sodium ions in the phosphorylation reaction. The pH dependence of ATP-dependent ouabain binding in the presence or absence of Na+ is similar, suggesting that protons are probably not substituting for Na+. Hybrid alpha/NH beta 1 pumps also show slightly higher apparent affinities (2-3-fold) for ATP, Na+, and ouabain; however, these are not sufficient to account for the increase in ouabain binding in the absence of Na+. In contrast to phosphoenzyme formation and ouabain binding by alpha/NH beta 1 complexes in the absence of Na+, ATPase activity, measured as release of phosphate from ATP, requires Na+. These data suggest that the transition from E1P to E2P during the catalytic cycle does not occur when the sodium binding sites are not occupied. Thus, the chimeric beta subunit reduces or eliminates the role of Na+ in phosphoenzyme formation from ATP, but Na+ binding or release by the enzyme is still required for ATP hydrolysis and release of phosphate.

Functional coupling of phosphorylation and nucleotide binding sites in the proteolytic fragments of Na+/K(+)-ATPase

Cleavage of the alpha-subunit of Na+/K(+)-ATPase by trypsin at Arg438-Ala439 causes enzyme inhibition which has been suggested to be due to altered alignment of phosphorylation site on the 48-kDa N-terminal fragment with nucleotide binding site on the 64-kDa C-terminal fragment. Our aims were to test this hypothesis and to assess the effect of the cleavage on the enzyme's two ATP sites. Na(+)-dependent phosphorylation of the partially cleaved enzyme by ATP showed that K0.5 values of ATP for phosphorylations of intact alpha and 48-kDa peptide were the same (0.4 microM). Unchanged interactions among the residues across the cleavage site were also indicated by data showing that reaction of fluorescein isothiocyanate with the 64-kDa peptide blocked phosphorylation of the 48-kDa peptide by ATP. ATP is known to block the reaction of fluorescein isothiocyanate with the enzyme. Experiments on the partially cleaved enzyme showed that K0.5 of ATP for protection of alpha was 30-60 microM, and the value for the protection of interacting 48-kDa and 64-kDa peptides was 1-3 mM. Evidently, while the cleavage does not affect the high affinity catalytic site, it disrupts the allosteric low affinity ATP site. Experiments on reconstituted preparations showed that the cleavage abolished ATP-dependent Na+/K+ exchange, Pi+ATP-dependent Rb+/Rb+ exchange, ATP-dependent Na+/Na+ exchange, and ADP+ATP-dependent Na+/Na+ exchange activities. Selective disruption of the low affinity ATP site accounts for the inhibitions of all functions involving K+(Rb+), based on the established role of this site in the control of K+ access channels. Cleavage-induced inhibitions of other activities, however, suggest additional roles of the low affinity ATP site in the reaction cycle.