Solution structure of the TR1C fragment of skeletal muscle troponin-C

Cryo-EM structures of cardiac thin filaments reveal the 3D architecture of troponin

Troponin is an essential component of striated muscle and it regulates the sliding of actomyosin system in a calcium-dependent manner. Despite its importance, the structure of troponin has been elusive due to its high structural heterogeneity. In this study, we analyzed the 3D structures of murine cardiac thin filaments using a cryo-electron microscope equipped with a Volta phase plate (VPP). Contrast enhancement by a VPP enabled us to reconstruct the entire repeat of the thin filament. We determined the orientation of troponin relative to F-actin and tropomyosin, and characterized the interactions between troponin and tropomyosin. This study provides a structural basis for understanding the molecular mechanism of actomyosin system.

Constructing a structural model of troponin using site-directed spin labeling: EPR and PRE-NMR

The relative ease of introducing a paramagnetic species onto a protein, and advances in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) over the past two decades, have established spin labeling as a vital structural biology technique for revealing the functional workings of the troponin muscle regulatory complex-an ~80 kDa heterotrimeric protein switch for turning on striated muscle contraction. Through the site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) of cysteine residues at key sites in troponin, a molecular-level understanding of the troponin muscle regulatory system across all levels of structural hierarchy has been achieved. Through the application of EPR, mobility and accessibility trends in the EPR signals of the spin labels attached to consecutive residues can reveal the secondary structure of troponin elements and also help map the interaction between subunits. Distance restraints calculated from the interspin interactions between spin label pairs have helped with building a structural model of the troponin complex. Further, when SDSL is paired with NMR, paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE)-NMR has been used to obtain high-resolution structural detail for both intra- and interdomain interactions in troponin and revealed details of protein conformational changes and dynamics accompanying troponin function. In this review, we provide an overview of the SDSL labeling methodology and its application towards building a dynamic structural model of the multi-subunit troponin complex which details the calcium-induced conformational changes intimately linked to muscle regulation. We also describe how the SDSL method, in conjunction with EPR or NMR, can be used to obtain insights into structural perturbations to troponin caused by disease-causing mutations.

Molecular Dynamics and Umbrella Sampling Simulations Elucidate Differences in Troponin C Isoform and Mutant Hydrophobic Patch Exposure

Troponin C (TnC) facilitates muscle contraction through calcium-binding within its N-terminal region (NTnC). As previously observed using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, this calcium-binding event leads to an increase in the dynamics of helices lining a hydrophobic patch on TnC. Simulation times of multiple microseconds were required to even see a partial opening of the hydrophobic patch, limiting the ability to thoroughly and quantitatively investigate these rare events. Here we describe the application of umbrella sampling to probe the TnC hydrophobic patch opening in a more targeted and quantitative fashion. Umbrella sampling was utilized to investigate the differences in the free energy of opening between cardiac (cTnC) and fast skeletal TnC (sTnC). We found that, in agreement with previous reports, holo (calcium-bound) sTnC had a lower free energy of opening compared with holo cTnC. Additionally, differences in the free energy of opening of hypertrophic (HCM) and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) cTnC systems were investigated. MD simulations and umbrella sampling revealed a lower free energy of opening for the HCM mutations A8V and A31S, as well as the calcium-sensitizing mutation L48Q. The DCM mutations, Y5H, Q50R, and E59D/D75Y, all exhibited a higher free energy of opening. An umbrella sampling simulation of cTnI-bound holo cTnC exhibited the lowest free energy in the open configuration, in agreement with experimental data. In conclusion, this study presents a novel and successful protocol for applying umbrella sampling simulations to quantitatively study the molecular basis of muscle contraction and proposes a mechanism by which HCM and DCM-associated mutations influence contraction.

Solution NMR structures of the C-domain of Tetrahymena cytoskeletal protein Tcb2 reveal distinct calcium-induced structural rearrangements

Tcb2 is a calcium-binding protein that localizes to the membrane-associated skeleton of the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila with hypothesized roles in ciliary movement, cell cortex signaling, and pronuclear exchange. Tcb2 has also been implicated in a unique calcium-triggered, ATP-independent type of contractility exhibited by filamentous networks isolated from the Tetrahymena cytoskeleton. To gain insight into Tcb2's structure-function relationship and contractile properties, we determined solution NMR structures of its C-terminal domain in the calcium-free and calcium-bound states. The overall architecture is similar to other calcium-binding proteins, with paired EF-hand calcium-binding motifs. Comparison of the two structures reveals that Tcb2-C's calcium-induced conformational transition differs from the prototypical calcium sensor calmodulin, suggesting that the two proteins play distinct functional roles in Tetrahymena and likely have different mechanisms of target recognition. Future studies of the full-length protein and the identification of Tcb2 cellular targets will help establish the molecular basis of Tcb2 function and its unique contractile properties. Proteins 2016; 84:1748-1756. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Overview of protein structural and functional folds

This overview provides an illustrated, comprehensive survey of some commonly observed protein‐fold families and structural motifs, chosen for their functional significance. It opens with descriptions and definitions of the various elements of protein structure and associated terminology. Following is an introduction into web‐based structural bioinformatics that includes surveys of interactive web servers for protein fold or domain annotation, protein‐structure databases, protein‐structure‐classification databases, structural alignments of proteins, and molecular graphics programs available for personal computers. The rest of the overview describes selected families of protein folds in terms of their secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structural arrangements, including ribbon‐diagram examples, tables of representative structures with references, and brief explanations pointing out their respective biological and functional significance.

Structure and dynamics of Ca2+-binding domain 1 of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in the presence and in the absence of Ca2+

The Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger is the major exporter of Ca(2+) across the cell membrane of cardiomyocytes. The activity of the exchanger is regulated by a large intracellular loop that contains two Ca(2+)-binding domains, calcium-binding domain (CBD) 1 and CBD2. CBD1 binds Ca(2+) with much higher affinity than CBD2 and is considered to be the primary Ca(2+) sensor. The effect of Ca(2+) on the structure and dynamics of CBD1 has been characterized by NMR spectroscopy using chemical shifts, residual dipolar couplings, and spin relaxation. Residual dipolar couplings are used in a new way for residue selection in the determination of the anisotropic rotational diffusion tensor from spin relaxation data. The results provide a highly consistent description across these complementary data sets and show that Ca(2+) binding is accompanied by a selective conformational change among the binding site residues. Residues that exhibit a significant conformational change are also sites of altered dynamics. In particular, Ca(2+) binding restricts the mobility of the major acidic segment and affects the dynamics of several nearby binding loops. These observations indicate that Ca(2+) elicits a local transition to a well-ordered coordination geometry in the CBD1-binding site.

Domain stability and metal-induced folding of calcium- and integrin-binding protein 1

It is widely accepted that a pair of EF-hands is the functional unit of typical four EF-hand proteins such as calmodulin or troponin C. In this work we investigate the structure and stability of the four EF-hand domains in the related protein calcium- and integrin-binding protein 1 (CIB1) in the presence and absence of Mg2+ or Ca2+, to determine if similar EF-hand interactions occur. The backbone structure and flexibility of CIB1 were first studied by NMR spectroscopy, and these studies were complimented with steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy and chemical denaturation experiments using mutant CIB1 proteins having single Trp reporter groups in each of the four EF-hand domains EF-I (F34W), EF-II (F91W), EF-III (L128W), and EF-IV (F173W). We find that Mg2+-CIB1 adopts a well-folded structure similar to Ca2+-CIB1, except for some conformational heterogeneity in the C-terminal EF-IV domain. The structure of apo-CIB1 is significantly more dynamic, especially within EF-II, EF-III, and a partially unfolded EF-IV region, but the N-terminal EF-I region of apo-CIB1 has a well-ordered and more stable structure. The data reveal significant communication between the N- and C-lobes of CIB1, and show that transient intermediate conformations are formed along the unfolding pathway for each form of the protein. Collectively the data demonstrate that the communication between the paired EF-hand domains as well as between the N- and C-lobes of CIB1 is distinct from the ancestral proteins calmodulin and troponin C, which might be important for the unique function of CIB1 in numerous biological processes.

Calbindin D28k EF-Hand Ligand Binding and Oligomerization: Four High-Affinity SitesThree Modes of Action

Calbindin D28k, a highly conserved protein with Ca2+-sensing and Ca2+-buffering capabilities, is abundant in brain and sensory neurons. This protein contains six EF-hand subdomains, four of which bind Ca2+ with high affinity. Calbindin D28k can be reconstituted from six synthetic peptides corresponding to the six EF-hands, indicating a single-domain structure with multiple interactions between the EF-hand subdomains. In this study, we have undertaken a detailed characterization of the Ca2+-binding and oligomerization properties of each individual EF-hand peptide using CD spectroscopy and analytical ultracentrifugation. Under the conditions tested, EF2 is monomeric and does not bind Ca2+, whereas EF6, which binds Ca2+ weakly, aggregates severely. We have therefore focused this study on the high-affinity binding sites, EF-hands 1, 3, 4, and 5. Our sedimentation equilibrium data show that, in the presence of Ca2+, EF-hands 1, 3, 4, and 5 all form dimers in solution in which the distribution between the monomer, dimer, and higher order oligomers differs. The processes of Ca2+ binding and oligomerization are linked to different degrees, and three main mechanisms emerge. For EF-hands 1 and 5, the dimer binds Ca2+ more strongly than the monomer and Ca2+ binding drives dimerization. For EF-hand 4, dimer formation requires only one of the monomers to be Ca2+-bound. In this case, the Ca2+ affinity is independent of dimerization. For EF-hand 3, dimerization occurs both in the absence and presence of Ca2+, while oligomerization increases in the presence of Ca2+.

Low-temperature-induced structural changes in the Apo regulatory domain of skeletal muscle troponin C

Contractile activity of skeletal muscle is triggered by a Ca2+-induced "opening" of the regulatory N-domain of troponin C (apo-NTnC residues 1-90). This structural transition has become a paradigm for large-scale conformational changes that affect the interaction between proteins. The regulatory domain is comprised of two basic structural elements: one contributed by the N-, A-, and D-helices (NAD unit) and the other by the B- and C-helices (BC unit). The Ca2+-induced opening is characterized by a movement of the BC unit away from the NAD unit with a concomitant change in conformation at two hinges (Glu41 and Val65) of the BC unit. To examine the effect of low temperatures on this Ca2+-induced structural change and the implications for contractile regulation, we have examined nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectral changes of apo-NTnC upon decreasing the temperature from 30 to 4 degrees C. In addition, we have determined the solution structure of apo-NTnC at 4 degrees C using multinuclear multidimensional NMR spectroscopy. Decreasing temperatures induce a decrease in the rates and amplitudes of pico to nanosecond time scale backbone dynamics and an increase in alpha-helical content for the terminal helices of apo-NTnC. In addition, chemical shift changes for the Halpha resonances of Val65 and Asp66, the hinge residues of the BC, unit were observed. Compared to the solution structure of apo-NTnC determined at 30 degrees C, the BC unit packs more tightly against the NAD unit in the solution structure determined at 4 degrees C. Concomitant with the tighter packing of the BC and NAD structural units, a decrease in the total exposed hydrophobic surface area is observed. The results have broad implications relative to structure determination of proteins in the presence of large domain movements, and help to elucidate the relevance of structures determined under different conditions of physical state and temperature, reflecting forces ranging from crystal packing to solution dynamics.

Ca2+ coordination to backbone carbonyl oxygen atoms in calmodulin and other EF-hand proteins: 15N chemical shifts as probes for monitoring individual-site Ca2+ coordination

Examination of the NMR 15N chemical shifts of a number of EF-hand proteins shows that the shift value for the amido nitrogen of the residue in position 8 of a canonical EF-hand loop (or position 10 of a pseudo EF-hand loop) provides a good indication of metal occupation of that site. The NH of the residue in position 8 is covalently bonded to the carbonyl of residue 7, the only backbone carbonyl that coordinates to the metal ion in a canonical EF-hand loop. Upon metal coordination to this carbonyl, there is an appreciable deshielding of the 15N nucleus at position 8 (+4 to +8 ppm) due to the polarization of the O(7)=C(7)-N(8) amido group and the corresponding reduction in the electron density of the nitrogen atom. This deshielding effect is effectively independent of the binding of metal to the other site of an EF-hand pair, allowing the 15N shifts to be used as probes for site-specific occupancy of metal binding sites. In addition, a Ca2+-induced change in side-chain Halpha-Calpha-Cbeta-Hbeta torsion angle for isoleucine or valine residues in position 8 can also contribute to the deshielding of the amide 15N nucleus. This conformational effect occurs only in sites I or III and takes place upon binding a Ca2+ ion to the other site of an EF-hand pair (site II or IV) regardless of whether the first site is occupied. The magnitude of this effect is in the range +5 to +7 ppm. A Ca2+ titration of 15N-labeled apo-calmodulin was performed using 2D 1H-15N HSQC NMR spectra. The changes in the 15N chemical shifts and intensities for the peaks corresponding to the NH groups of residues in position 8 of the EF-hand loops allowed the amount of metal bound at sites II, III and IV to be monitored directly at partial degrees of saturation. The peak corresponding to site I could only be monitored at the beginning and end of the titration because of line broadening effects in the intermediate region of the titration. Sites III and IV both titrate preferentially and the results demonstrate clearly that sites in either domain fill effectively in parallel, consistent with a significant positive intradomain cooperativity of calcium binding.

Backbone and methyl dynamics of the regulatory domain of troponin C: anisotropic rotational diffusion and contribution of conformational entropy to calcium affinity

The N-terminal domain (residues 1 to 90) of chicken skeletal troponin C (NTnC) regulates muscle contraction upon the binding of a calcium ion to each of its two calcium binding loops. In order to characterize the backbone dynamics of NTnC in the apo state (NTnC-apo), we measured and carefully analyzed 15N NMR relaxation parameters T1, T2 and NOE at 1H NMR frequencies of 500 and 600 MHz. The overall rotational correlation time of NTnC-apo at 29.6 degrees C is 4.86 (+/-0.15) ns. The experimental data indicate that the rotational diffusion of NTnC-apo is anisotropic with a diffusion anisotropy, D parallel/D perpendicular, of 1.10. Additionally, the dynamic properties of side-chains having a methyl group were derived from 2H relaxation data of CH2D groups of a partially deuterated sample. Based on the dynamic characteristics of TnC, two different levels of "fine tuning" of the calcium affinity are presented. Significantly lower backbone order parameters (S2), were observed for calcium binding site I relative to site II and the contribution of the bond vector fluctuations to the conformational entropy of sites I and II was calculated. The conformational entropy loss due to calcium binding (DeltaDeltaSp) differs by 1 kcal/mol between sites I and II. This is consistent with the different dissociation constants previously measured for sites I and II of 16 microM and 1. 7 microM, respectively. In addition to the direct role of binding loop dynamics, the side-chain methyl group dynamics play an indirect role through the energetics of the calcium-induced structural change from a closed to an open state. Our results show that the side-chains which will be exposed upon calcium binding have reduced motion in the apo state, suggesting that conformational entropic contributions can be used to offset the free energy cost of exposing hydrophobic groups. It is clear from this work that a complete determination of their dynamic characteristics is necessary in order to fully understand how TnC and other proteins are fine tuned to appropriately carry out their function.

1H NMR assignments of apo calcyclin and comparative structural analysis with calbindin D9k and S100 beta

The homodimeric S100 protein calcyclin has been studied in the apo state by two-dimensional 1H NMR spectroscopy. Using a combination of scalar correlation and NOE experiments, sequence-specific 1H NMR assignments were obtained for all but one backbone and > 90% of the side-chain resonances. To our knowledge, the 2 x 90 residue (20 kDa) calcyclin dimer is the largest protein system for which such complete assignments have been made by purely homonuclear methods. Sequential and medium-range NOEs and slowly exchanging backbone amide protons identified directly the four helices and the short antiparallel beta-type interaction between the two binding loops that comprise each subunit of the dimer. Further analysis of NOEs enabled the unambiguous assignment of 556 intrasubunit distance constraints, 24 intrasubunit hydrogen bonding constraints, and 2 x 26 intersubunit distance constraints. The conformation of the monomer subunit was refined by distance geometry and restrained molecular dynamics calculations using the intrasubunit constraints only. Calculation of the dimer structure starting from this conformational ensemble has been reported elsewhere. The extent of structural homology among the apo calcyclin subunit, the monomer subunit of apo S100 beta, and monomeric apo calbindin D9k has been examined in detail by comparing 1H NMR chemical shifts and secondary structures. This analysis was extended to a comprehensive comparison of the three-dimensional structures of the calcyclin monomer subunit and calbindin D9k, which revealed greater similarity in the packing of their hydrophobic cores than was anticipated previously. Together, these results support the hypothesis that all members of the S100 family have similar core structures and similar modes of dimerization. Analysis of the amphiphilicity of Helix IV is used to explain why calbindin D9k is monomeric, but full-length S100 proteins form homodimers.

Calcium-induced conformational change in cardiac troponin C studied by fluorescence probes attached to Cys-84

Residue Cys-84 of bovine cardiac troponin C (cTnC) located at the C-terminal end of helix D was selectively labeled in the presence of Ca2+ with two fluorescent probes: IAANS (2-(4-(iodoacetamido)anilino)naphthalene-6-sulfonic acid) and acrylodan (6-acrylol-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene). The fluorescence of the attached probes was studied by the steady-state and time-resolved methods to gain an insight about the nature of Ca(2+)-induced conformational changes in the N-domain regulatory region of cTnC. Changes in the experimental emission spectra, quantum yields, and excited-state lifetimes suggested that bound Ca2+ at the single regulatory site induced a less polar microenvironment for both probes attached to Cys-84. However, a twofold increase in the bimolecular collisional quenching constant was observed for both probes in the presence of activator Ca2+, indicating an increased exposure of the probes to solvent. These data were interpreted with reference to the origins of the observed Stokes' shifts. In the apo and 2Mg states of cTnC, the attached probes were partially shielded by helices B and C, and their excited-states were highly quenched in the tertiary structure through strong interactions of a dipolar nature with neighboring amino-acid side chains. In the 3Ca state, these interactions were disrupted so that nonradiative decay processes were suppressed and radiative processes were enhanced, leading to the observed increases in quantum yields and lifetimes and blue-shifts of the emission spectra. As the disruption of internal quenching resulted from separation of helices B and C from helix D, the attached probes became more accessible to solvent and experienced increases in the rate of collisions with external molecules in the solvent. Although this increased exposure to solvent would lead to suppression of radiative decay processes, this effect apparently was overcompensated by the effect of elimination of internal quenching. The present results are consistent with a Ca(2+)-induced open conformation of the N-domain in cTnC.

NMR solution structure of a synthetic troponin C heterodimeric domain

The C-terminal domain from the muscle protein troponin C (TnC) comprises two helix-loop-helix calcium-binding sites (residues 90-162). The assembly of these two sites is governed by calcium binding enabling a synthetic C-terminal domain to be preferentially and stoichiometrically assembled from two synthetic peptides (residues 93-126, SCIII, and 129-162, SCIV) in the presence of calcium only. It is therefore of great interest to know how closely the structure of this heterodimeric domain is to the intact protein domain. Analysis of such a structure has important implications in protein engineering and in understanding the stability of calcium-binding proteins in terms of biological function. The solution structure of this heterodimeric protein was determined by 1H NMR spectroscopy using 802 NOE derived distance restraints and 23 phi and 22 chi angle restraints. Distance geometry-simulated annealing calculations yielded a family of 42 converged structures (rmsd 0.86 +/- 0.17 A) showing an arrangement of four alpha-helices similar in fold to the C-terminal of troponin C. The dimer interface has several important interactions between helix pairs E/H and F/G responsible for the association of the two peptides. However, neither the peptide complex nor the solution NMR structure of TnC pack as tightly as that observed in the TnC X-ray structure. The interhelical distance between the F/G helix is about 1.4 A greater in solution than in the crystal. A comparison of the exposed surface area of the hydrophobic residues in the SCIII/SCIV heterodimer revealed that residues 1104, Y112, and 1121 are more exposed than in the previously determined solution structure of the SCIII homodimer. These residues are important for the interaction with the inhibitory region of TnI and provide evidence for their involvement in the regulation of muscle contraction.

Structures of the troponin C regulatory domains in the apo and calcium-saturated states

Regulation of contraction in skeletal muscle occurs through calcium binding to the protein troponin C. The solution structures of the regulatory domain of apo and calcium-loaded troponin C have been determined by multinuclear, multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. The structural transition in the regulatory domain of troponin C on calcium binding involves an opening of the structure through large changes in interhelical angles. This leads to the increased exposure of an extensive hydrophobic patch, an event that triggers skeletal muscle contraction.

Determination of the solution structure of Apo calbindin D9k by NMR spectroscopy

The three-dimensional structure of apo calbindin D9k has been determined using constraints generated from nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The family of solution structures was calculated using a combination of distance geometry, restrained molecular dynamics, and hybrid relaxation matrix analysis of the nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) cross-peak intensities. Errors and inconsistencies in the input constraints were identified using complete relaxation matrix analyses based on the results of preliminary structure calculations. The final input data consisted of 994 NOE distance constraints and 122 dihedral constraints, aided by the stereospecific assignment of the resonances from 21 beta-methylene groups and seven isopropyl groups of leucine and valine residues. The resulting family of 33 structures contain no violation of the distance constraints greater than 0.17 A or of the dihedral angle constraints greater than 10 degrees. The structures consist of a well-defined, antiparallel four-helix bundle, with a short anti-parallel beta-interaction between the two unoccupied calcium-binding loops. The root-mean-square deviation from the mean structure of the backbone heavy-atoms for the well-defined helical residues is 0.55 A. The remainder of the ion-binding loops, the linker loop connecting the two sub-domains of the protein, and the N and C termini exhibit considerable disorder between different structures in the ensemble. A comparison with the structure of the (Ca2+)2 state indicates that the largest changes associated with ion-binding occur in the middle of helix IV and in the packing of helix III onto the remainder of the protein. The change in conformation of these helices is associated with a subtle reorganization of many residues in the hydrophobic core, including some side-chains that are up to 15 A from the ion-binding site.

Quantification of the calcium-induced secondary structural changes in the regulatory domain of troponin-C

The backbone resonance assignments have been completed for the apo (1H and 15N) and calcium-loaded (1H, 15N, and 13C) regulatory N-domain of chicken skeletal troponin-C (1-90), using multidimensional homonuclear and heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. The chemical-shift information, along with detailed NOE analysis and 3JHNH alpha coupling constants, permitted the determination and quantification of the Ca(2+)-induced secondary structural change in the N-domain of TnC. For both structures, 5 helices and 2 short beta-strands were found, as was observed in the apo N-domain of the crystal structure of whole TnC (Herzberg O, James MNG, 1988, J Mol Biol 203:761-779). The NMR solution structure of the apo form is indistinguishable from the crystal structure, whereas some structural differences are evident when comparing the 2Ca2+ state solution structure with the apo one. The major conformational change observed is the straightening of helix-B upon Ca2+ binding. The possible importance and role of this conformational change is explored. Previous CD studies on the regulatory domain of TnC showed a significant Ca(2+)-induced increase in negative ellipticity, suggesting a significant increase in helical content upon Ca2+ binding. The present study shows that there is virtually no change in alpha-helical content associated with the transition from apo to the 2Ca2+ state of the N-domain of TnC. Therefore, the Ca(2+)-induced increase in ellipticity observed by CD does not relate to a change in helical content, but more likely to changes in spatial orientation of helices.

Purification and spectroscopic characterization of a recombinant amino-terminal polypeptide fragment of mouse epithelial cadherin

Cadherins are a family of Ca(2+)-dependent cell adhesion molecules containing four extracellular tandem repeats each of 110 amino acids. The most amino-terminal repeat is believed to confer the specificity of cell adhesion. A polypeptide containing the amino-terminal repeat of mouse epithelial cadherin has been over-expressed in E. coli and purified to homogeneity. This polypeptide binds Ca2+ with a dissociation constant of 1.6 x 10(-4) M. CD and NMR experiments indicate that the polypeptide adopts a predominantly beta-sheet conformation and that binding of Ca2+ induces only small conformational changes.