Exchange of cytochrome b5 between phospholipid vesicles

Effect of dicetylphosphate or stearic acid on spontaneous transfer of protein from influenza virus-infected cells to dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine liposomes

Membrane proteins, such as viral spike, were transferred spontaneously from influenza virus-infected cells to various liposomes. The protein transfer was enhanced by the presence of negative charged component dicetylphosphate (DCP) or stearic acid (SA) in dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) liposomes. The lowering of membrane fluidity did not relate to the effect of DCP or SA on protein transfer in this study. We considered that the alteration of membrane properties, such as construction of the surface or stability of transferred protein in liposomes, due to the specific structure of DCP or SA is responsible for the enhancement of spontaneous protein transfer by the presence of the amphiphilic components.

Physical determinants of intermembrane protein transfer

Intermembrane protein transfer between erythrocytes and phospholipid vesicles was examined under a variety of conditions to investigate physical factors governing this process. Human erythrocytes were incubated with sonicated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine vesicles containing trace [14C]dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine. Protein-vesicle complexes were separated from cells and from membrane fragments by density gradient centrifugation. The yield of isolated protein vesicles was determined from the 14C-vesicle marker; protein compositions were analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Enzymatic removal of portions of the cytoplasmic or exoplasmic domains of cell membrane proteins had little effect on the extent of protein transfer. Membrane additives such as cholate produced a 2-fold increase in protein-vesicle yield. The selectivity of protein transfer from erythrocytes was influenced by the lipid composition of recipient vesicles: inclusion of cholesterol increased band 3 content while the presence of anionic phospholipids reduced transfer. Proteins transferred from 32P-labeled cells differed in specific radioactivity from bulk cell proteins: glycophorin, highly phosphorylated in the cell membrane, showed no detectable labeling in the corresponding protein-vesicle band. These observations suggest that cell-to-vesicle protein transfer is insensitive to bulk steric and electrostatic properties of cell membranes, but enhanced by membrane defects. Recipient membrane composition influences the selectivity of transferred proteins and may reveal subtle differences in the membrane association of protein subpopulations.

Physiochemical characterization of the nisin-membrane interaction with liposomes derived from Listeria monocytogenes

Mechanistic information about the bacteriocin nisin was obtained by examining the efflux of 5(6)-carboxy-fluorescein from Listeria monocytogenes-derived liposomes. The initial leakage rate (percentage of efflux per minute) of the entrapped dye was dependent on both nisin and lipid concentrations. At all nisin concentrations tested, 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein efflux plateaued before all of the 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein was released (suggesting that pore formation was transient), but efflux resumed when more nisin was added. Isotherms for the binding of nisin to liposomes constructed on the basis of the Langmuir isotherm gave an apparent binding constant of 6.2 x 10(5)M(-1) at pH 6.0. The critical number of nisin molecules required to induce efflux from liposomes at pH 6.0 was approximately 7,000 molecules per liposome. The pH affected the 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein leakage rates, with higher pH values resulting in higher leakage rates. The increased leakage rate observed at higher pH values was not due to an increase in the binding affinity of the nisin molecules towards the liposomal membrane. Rather, the critical number of nisin molecules required to induce activity was decreased (approximately 1,000 nisin molecules per liposome at pH 7.0). These data are consistent with a poration mechanism in which the ionization state of histidine residues in nisin plays an important role in membrane permeabilization.

Effect of cholesterol on the tight insertion of cytochrome b5 into large unilamellar vesicles

When cytochrome b5 is added to large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosphatidylcholine (POPC), it binds predominantly in a 'loose,' or transferable form. Prolonged incubation of 30 degrees C leads to insertion in the physiological 'tight,' nontransferable form, with a halftime for the loose --> tight conversion of approx. 9 days. In this study, the effect of cholesterol on the rate of tight insertion was determined. Tight binding was assayed by depleting the LUVs of loose cytochrome b5 with an excess of SUV acceptors and then separating the liposome populations by gel-filtration or velocity sedimentation. Incorporation of cholesterol into the LUVs was found to markedly increase the rate of tight insertion, even though cholesterol decreases the equilibrium binding constant and saturation level of protein binding. The effect is not a continuously increasing function of cholesterol content, but attains a maximum at 20-25% mol%, where the rate enhancement is approx. 10-fold over baseline. At higher cholesterol levels, the rate decreases, returning to baseline at 40 mol% cholesterol. These observations are highly unusual in that cholesterol generally decreases the membrane binding affinity and the permeability of solutes, and does so as a monotonic function of cholesterol concentration (above the liquid-crystalline phase transition of the phospholipids). It is suggested that tight insertion is enhanced by lipid-protein packing mismatches and by bilayer fluidity; the former increases monotonically with increasing cholesterol whereas the latter decreases monotonically. At 20-25 mol% cholesterol the optimum balance of these physical properties is obtained for tight insertion.

The carboxyl terminus of the membrane-binding domain of cytochrome b5 spans the bilayer of the endoplasmic reticulum

Preliminary studies (Vergères, G., and Waskell, L. (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267, 12583-12591) have suggested that the carboxyl-terminal membrane-binding domain of cytochrome b5 traverses the membrane and that the carboxyl terminus is in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. In order to confirm and extend these studies, additional experiments were conducted. The gene coding for rat cytochrome b5 was transcribed and the resulting mRNA was translated in vitro in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate in the presence of microsomes. The binding and topology of cytochrome b5 were investigated by treating microsomes containing the newly incorporated cytochrome b5 with carboxypeptidase Y and trypsin. Our studies indicate that cytochrome b5 is inserted both co- and post-translationally into microsomes in a topology in which the membrane-binding domain spans the bilayer with its COOH terminus in the lumen. Cytochrome b5 is also incorporated into microsomes pretreated with trypsin in a topology indistinguishable from the one resulting from the insertion of the protein into untreated microsomes, reconfirming that cytochrome b5 does not use the signal recognition particle-dependent translocation machinery. Our results do not allow a distinction to be made between a spontaneous insertion mode or some other trypsin-resistant receptor-mediated mechanism. A role for Pro115 in the middle of the membrane-binding domain of cytochrome b5 was also examined by mutating it to an alanine and subsequently characterizing the ability of the mutant protein to be incorporated into membranes. The mutant protein inserted more slowly in vitro into microsomes as well as into pure lipid bilayers by a factor of 2 to 3.

Cytochrome b5, its functions, structure and membrane topology

The first part of the present communication reviews recent advances in our understanding of the known physiological functions of cytochrome b5. In addition, one section is devoted to a description of a recently discovered function of cytochrome b5, namely its involvement in the synthesis of the oncofetal antigen N-glycolylneuraminic acid. The second part of the article summarizes site-directed mutagenesis studies, primarily conducted in the author's laboratory, in both the catalytic heme-binding and membrane-binding domain of cytochrome b5. These studies have shown that: 1) the membrane binding domain of cytochrome b5 spans the bilayer; 2) cytochrome b5 lacking 19 COOH-terminal amino acids does not bind to membrane bilayers; and 3) specific amino acids in the membrane binding domain have been mutated and shown not to be essential for the function of cytochrome b5 with its redox partners.

Lipid dynamics and peripheral interactions of proteins with membrane surfaces

A large body of evidence strongly indicates biomembranes to be organized into compositionally and functionally specialized domains, supramolecular assemblies, existing on different time and length scales. For these domains and intimate coupling between their chemical composition, physical state, organization, and functions has been postulated. One important constituent of biomembranes are peripheral proteins whose activity can be controlled by non-covalent binding to lipids. Importantly, the physical chemistry of the lipid interface allows for a rapid and reversible control of peripheral interactions. In this review examples are provided on how membrane lipid (i) composition (i.e., specific lipid structures), (ii) organization, and (iii) physical state can each regulate peripheral binding of proteins to the lipid surface. In addition, a novel and efficient mechanism for the control of the lipid surface association of peripheral proteins by [Ca2+], lipid composition, and phase state is proposed. The phase state is, in turn, also dependent on factors such as temperature, lateral packing, presence of ions, metabolites and drugs. Confining reactions to interfaces allows for facile and cooperative large scale integration and control of metabolic pathways due to mechanisms which are not possible in bulk systems.

Tight insertion of cytochrome b5 into large unilamellar vesicles

Cytochrome b5 spontaneously binds to liposomes in a 'loose', or transferable form, whereas in vivo b5 binds post-translationally to the ER in the 'tight' or nontransferable form. The mechanism of tight insertion is unknown, except that it does not require SRP or energy input. The present study shows that prolonged incubation of b5 with large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) of phosphatidylcholine results in slow conversion of the loose to the tight form, with a halftime of days. However, the process is complex. When the b5-LUVs are depleted of loose b5, by transfer of b5 to sonicated vesicles, the tight b5 is found to be concentrated to near saturating levels in a small fraction of the LUVs. If the LUVs devoid of tight b5 are recovered and then reincubated with fresh b5, the same slow transformation recurs. Apparently, a new population of vesicles, containing tight b5, is generated during the prolonged incubation with the protein. The b5-enriched LUVs contain about the same level of trapped sucrose as does the original vesicle preparation, indicating that vesicle integrity is maintained throughout the process. When fresh b5 is added to these tight b5-containing LUVs, all the freshly bound protein rapidly inserts (< 2 h) into the tight configuration. Apparently, the newly formed tight-b5/LUV vesicle population is 'insertion-active'. A model for these complex transformations is proposed.

Calorimetric and fluorescence characterization of interactions between cytochrome b5 and phosphatidylcholine bilayers

The interactions of cytochrome b5 with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine lipid bilayers have been studied with high-sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry and fluorescence spectroscopy. The incorporation of cytochrome b5 into large single lamellar vesicles causes a reduction in the enthalpy change associated with the lipid phase transition. Analysis of the dependence of this enthalpy change on the protein/lipid molar ratio indicates that each cytochrome b5 molecule prevents 14 +/- 1 lipid molecules from participating in the gel to liquid-crystalline transition and that this number is independent of the phospholipid acyl chain length. Resonance energy transfer between the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of cytochrome b5 and pyrenedecanoic acid indicates that, in the liquid-crystalline phase, protein and lipid molecules are uniformly distributed within the bilayer plane. In the gel phase, pyrenedecanoic acid partitions into the boundary layer lipid causing a dramatic decrease in the fluorescence intensity of cytochrome b5. The excimer/monomer ratios of pyrenedecanoic acid decrease upon increasing the protein/lipid molar ratio, indicating that the presence of protein molecules within the bilayer slows down the lateral mobility of the lipid probes. The picture that emerges from this set of experiments is that cytochrome b5 perturbs one layer of lipid around the hydrophobic segment of the protein and that this layer is unable to undergo the gel-liquid-crystalline transition, remaining instead in a relatively disordered configuration above and below the transition temperature of the bulk lipid.

Assembly of proteins into membranes

Two pathways for protein assembly into biological membranes have been proposed. The "signal hypothesis" emphasizes the role of specific membrane proteins in binding the growing polypeptide and conducting it into the bilayer during its synthesis. The "membrane-triggered folding" hypothesis emphasizes self-assembly and the role of changing protein conformation during transfer from an aqueous compartment into a membrane. These ideas provide a framework for reviewing recent data on the biogenesis of membrane proteins.

Mechanism of exchange of cytochrome b5 between phosphatidylcholine vesicles

The intervesicle exchange of cytochrome b5 has been studied by fluorescence quenching. The binding of cytochrome b5 to 1,2-bis(9.10-dibromostearoyl)-sn-glycerol-3-phosphorylcholine vesicles results in a quenching of cytochrome b5 fluorescence whereas the fluorescence is enhanced upon binding to 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine vesicles. This difference in cytochrome b5 fluorescence upon binding was used to study the kinetics of cytochrome b5 intervesicle exchange between the "quenching" and "enhancing" vesicles. Separation of the two cytochrome b5-vesicle complexes by density gradient centrifugation provided direct evidence for cytochrome b5 intervesicle exchange. Both the fluorescence assay and the density gradient assay yield the same value for the extent of cytochrome b5 exchange, obtained after equilibration, between the two types of vesicles. Both experiments also indicate that cytochrome b5 binds in a reversible fashion and has an equal affinity for the two types of vesicles. The kinetics of the exchange process are consistent with a mechanism involving the transfer of cytochrome b5 through the aqueous phase and rule out a mechanism involving vesicle collision.

Transfer of cytochrome b 5 and NADPH cytochrome c reductase between membranes

NADPH-cytochrome c reductase also reduces cytochrome b 5. The reduction is very slow when the proteins are in solution or bound to different membranes. Only when both proteins share a common membrane, is cytochrome b 5 reduced rapidly by NADPH. The difference in reaction rates indicates recombination on a common membrane of cytochrome b 5 and NADPH reductase originally bound to different vesicles. The recombination of the two proteins occurs with a variety of biological membranes (previously enriched with either reductase or cytochrome b 5) as well as with liposomes. We explain this process as protein transfer rather than vesicle fusion for several reasons: 1. The vesicles do not alter shape or size during incubation. 2. The rate of this process corresponds to the rate of incorporation of the single proteins into liposomes carrying the 'complementary' protein. 3. The exchange of proteins between biological membranes and liposomes occupied by protein does not change the density of either membrane. Protein transfer between membranes appears to be limited to those proteins which had spontaneously recombined with a preformed membrane. In contrast, proteins incorporated into liposomes by means of a detergent were not transferred, nor were endogenous cytochrome b 5 and NADPH-cytochrome c reductase transferred from microsomes to Golgi membranes or lipid vesicles. We conclude that the endogenous proteins and proteins incorporated in the presence of a detergent are linked to the membrane in another manner than the same proteins which had been inserted into a preformed membrane.

Mode of insertion of the sucrase-isomaltase complex in the intestinal brush border membrane: implications for the biosynthesis of this stalked intrinsic membrane protein

Unlike other intrinsic plasma membrane proteins the sucrase-isomaltase complex is associated with the intestinal brush border membrane through a highly hydrophobic segment located not far from the N-terminal of one subunit (isomaltase). This observation calls for additions and/or modifications to the generally accepted scheme of biosynthesis of plasma membrane intrinsic proteins.