1
|
Kim MS, Buisson LA, Heathcote DA, Hu H, Braddock DC, Barrett AGM, Ashton-Rickardt PG, Snyder JP. Approaches to design non-covalent inhibitors for human granzyme B (hGrB). Org Biomol Chem 2015; 12:8952-65. [PMID: 25277547 DOI: 10.1039/c4ob01874e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A structure-based design campaign for non-covalent small molecule inhibitors of human granzyme B was carried out by means of a virtual screening strategy employing three constraints and probe site-mapping with FTMAP to identify ligand "hot spots". In addition, new scaffolds of diverse structures were subsequently explored with ROCS shape-based superposition methods, following by Glide SP docking, induced fit docking and analysis of QikProp molecular properties. Novel classes of moderately active small molecule blockers (≥25 μM IC50 values) from commercially available libraries were identified, and three novel scaffolds have been synthesized by multi-step procedures. Furthermore, we provide an example of a comprehensive structure-based drug discovery approach to non-covalent inhibitors that relies on the X-ray structure of a covalently bound ligand and suggest that the design path may be compromised by alternative and unknown binding poses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Sun Kim
- Department of Chemistry, 1515 Dickey Drive. and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sun LX, Lin ZB, Duan XS, Lu J, Ge ZH, Li XJ, Li M, Xing EH, Jia J, Lan TF, Li WD. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides antagonize the suppression on lymphocytes induced by culture supernatants of B16F10 melanoma cells. J Pharm Pharmacol 2011; 63:725-35. [PMID: 21492175 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01266.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
Tumour cells produce factors such as interleukin 10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) that suppress the function of immune cells or induce apoptosis of immune cells. One of the most important goals of tumour immunotherapy is to antagonize this suppression on immune cells. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (Gl-PS) may have this potential. The purpose of this study was to determine the antagonistic effects of Gl-PS on the suppression induced by B16F10 melanoma cell culture supernatant (B16F10-CS) on lymphocytes.
Methods
Gl-PS was used on lymphocytes incubated with B16F10-CS. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to determine the levels of IL-10, TGF-β1 and VEGF in B16F10-CS. The MTT assay was used to determine the proliferation of lymphocytes. Immunocytochemistry and Western blot assay were used to determine perforin and granzyme B production in lymphocytes.
Key findings
There were elevated levels of IL-10, TGF-β1 and VEGF in B16F10-CS. The lymphocyte proliferation, and perforin and granzyme B production in lymphocytes after induction with phytohemagglutinin, as well as lymphocyte proliferation in the mixed lymphocyte reaction, were suppressed by B16F10-CS. This suppression was fully or partially antagonized by Gl-PS.
Conclusions
B16F10-CS suppressed lymphocyte proliferation and perforin and granzyme B production in lymphocytes after induction with phytohemagglutinin, as well as lymphocyte proliferation in the mixed lymphocyte reaction. This suppression may be associated with elevated levels of immunosuppressive IL-10, TGF-β1 and VEGF in B16F10-CS. Gl-PS had antagonistic effects on the immunosuppression induced by B16F10-CS, suggesting the potential for Gl-PS in cancer immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Xin Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, Peking University Health Science Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Zhi-Bin Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, Peking University Health Science Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xin-Suo Duan
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Jie Lu
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Zhi-Hua Ge
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Xue-Jun Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Peking University Health Science Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Min Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Peking University Health Science Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - En-Hong Xing
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Jing Jia
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Tian-Fei Lan
- Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical College, Chengde, Hebei Province, China
| | - Wei-Dong Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Peking University Health Science Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Patel MR, Chang YF, Chen IY, Bachmann MH, Yan X, Contag CH, Gambhir SS. Longitudinal, noninvasive imaging of T-cell effector function and proliferation in living subjects. Cancer Res 2011; 70:10141-9. [PMID: 21159636 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-1843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive immunotherapy is evolving to assume an increasing role in treating cancer. Most imaging studies in adoptive immunotherapy to date have focused primarily on locating tumor-specific T cells rather than understanding their effector functions. In this study, we report the development of a noninvasive imaging strategy to monitor T-cell activation in living subjects by linking a reporter gene to the Granzyme B promoter (pGB), whose transcriptional activity is known to increase during T-cell activation. Because pGB is relatively weak and does not lead to sufficient reporter gene expression for noninvasive imaging, we specifically employed 2 signal amplification strategies, namely the Two Step Transcription Amplification (TSTA) strategy and the cytomegalovirus enhancer (CMVe) strategy, to maximize firefly luciferase reporter gene expression. Although both amplification strategies were capable of increasing pGB activity in activated primary murine splenocytes, only the level of bioluminescence activity achieved with the CMVe strategy was adequate for noninvasive imaging in mice. Using T cells transduced with a reporter vector containing the hybrid pGB-CMVe promoter, we were able to optically image T-cell effector function longitudinally in response to tumor antigens in living mice. This methodology has the potential to accelerate the study of adoptive immunotherapy in preclinical cancer models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manishkumar R Patel
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) is the most abundant serine protease in killer cell cytotoxic granules. GzmA activates a novel programed cell death pathway that begins in the mitochondrion, where cleavage of NDUFS3 in electron transport complex I disrupts mitochondrial metabolism and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS drives the endoplasmic reticulum-associated SET complex into the nucleus, where it activates single-stranded DNA damage. GzmA also targets other important nuclear proteins for degradation, including histones, the lamins that maintain the nuclear envelope, and several key DNA damage repair proteins (Ku70, PARP-1). Cells that are resistant to the caspases or GzmB by overexpressing bcl-2 family anti-apoptotic proteins or caspase or GzmB protease inhibitors are sensitive to GzmA. By activating multiple cell death pathways, killer cells provide better protection against a variety of intracellular pathogens and tumors. GzmA also has proinflammatory activity; it activates pro-interleukin-1beta and may also have other proinflammatory effects that remain to be elucidated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Judy Lieberman
- Immune Disease Institute and Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chowdhury D, Lieberman J. Death by a thousand cuts: granzyme pathways of programmed cell death. Annu Rev Immunol 2008; 26:389-420. [PMID: 18304003 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 451] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The granzymes are cell death-inducing enzymes, stored in the cytotoxic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, that are released during granule exocytosis when a specific virus-infected or transformed target cell is marked for elimination. Recent work suggests that this homologous family of serine esterases can activate at least three distinct pathways of cell death. This redundancy likely evolved to provide protection against pathogens and tumors with diverse strategies for evading cell death. This review discusses what is known about granzyme-mediated pathways of cell death as well as recent studies that implicate granzymes in immune regulation and extracellular proteolytic functions in inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Duggan BL, Cabilio NR, Dickie P, Witmer J, Goping IS, Underhill DA, Bleackley RC. A novel lineage-specific hypersensitive site is essential for position independent granzyme B expression in transgenic mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 368:357-63. [PMID: 18222115 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.01.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Accepted: 01/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The granzyme B gene is activated upon cytotoxic T cell stimulation and the protein is a key inducer of apoptosis in target cells. Previous studies have identified important proximal regulatory regions but these proved insufficient to drive expression in vivo. We identified a DNase1 hypersensitive site (HS2) 3.9kb upstream of the transcription start site that was present in stimulated but not resting CD8+ cells. The CTL line CTLL R8 was stably transfected with GFP reporter constructs and showed consistently higher fluorescence values when HS2 was included. In transgenic mice the presence of the relevant region of DNA resulted in inducible, CTL-specific transcription of the transgene in all transgenic founder lines analyzed. Deletion of HS2 resulted in a 10-fold reduction in expression. This is the first report of a major distal regulatory element in the control of granzyme B transcription.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda L Duggan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta., Canada T6G 2H7
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Catlin R, Shah H, Bankhurst AD, Whalen MM. Dibutyltin exposure decreases granzyme B and perforin in human natural killer cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2005; 20:395-403. [PMID: 21783618 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2005.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2004] [Accepted: 03/15/2005] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are a subset of lymphocytes that are capable of killing tumor and virally-infected cells. Dibutyltin (DBT) is a catalyst in the production of PVC plastics and a breakdown product of tributyltin (TBT). DBT is a significant environmental contaminant. This study investigates the mechanism by which DBT exposure decreases the immune function of human NK cells. NK cells destroy their target cells by releasing cytotoxic proteins, perforin, and granzyme B. We examined the effect of DBT exposures on the levels of cytotoxic proteins and their mRNAs. Exposure of NK cells to DBT for 1h caused significant decreases in the mRNAs for granzyme B and perforin but not in protein levels. A 24h exposure to DBT decreased mRNAs as well as protein levels for both granzyme B and perforin. Exposure to DBT for 1h followed by either a 24 or 48h period in DBT-free media, decreased levels of granzyme B and perforin. The results indicate that decreases in granzyme B and perforin levels in NK cells are consequences of DBT exposure. Additionally, DBT causes rapid decreases in mRNAs for perforin and granzyme B, suggesting decreases in transcription and/or increases in mRNA degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reetta Catlin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Thomas LD, Shah H, Bankhurst AD, Whalen MM. Effects of interleukins 2 and 12 on the levels of granzyme B and perforin and their mRNAs in tributyltin-exposed human natural killer cells. Arch Toxicol 2005; 79:711-20. [PMID: 16032371 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-005-0002-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2005] [Accepted: 06/01/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are a subset of lymphocytes that are capable of killing tumor cells, virally infected cells and antibody coated cells. Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as: slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, anti-fouling agents, and the preservation of wood. TBT can be found in edible items such as fish. A previous study showed that a 1 h exposure of NK cells to TBT caused persistent inhibition of NK-cell ability to destroy tumor cells in the 24 and 48 h periods following exposure and that this loss of function could be significantly prevented and/or reversed if the NK-stimulatory interleukins (IL) 2 or 12 were present during the 24 and 48 h periods. We had also shown that TBT exposure was able to significantly decrease the protein and mRNA levels of the cytotoxic proteins, granzyme B and perforin, and the phosphorylation of cAMP-response-element-binding protein (CREB) under these conditions. In this study we address the effects of IL-2 and IL-12 on the TBT-induced decreases in NK-cell levels of the cytotoxic proteins, their mRNAs, and CREB phosphorylation. IL-2 appeared to prevent/reverse TBT-induced declines in perforin protein levels and the mRNA for perforin seen in the 24 h period following a 1 h exposure to 300 nM TBT. However, the TBT-induced decreases in the levels of perforin and perforin mRNA seen in the 48 h period following a 1 h exposure to TBT were not statistically significantly prevented/reversed by IL-2. Additionally, the TBT-induced decreases in granzyme B, granzyme B mRNA, and CREB phosphorylation were not statistically significantly reversed by either IL-2 or IL-12 after 24 or 48 h.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- LeeShawn D Thomas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209-1561, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Loh J, Thomas DA, Revell PA, Ley TJ, Virgin HW. Granzymes and caspase 3 play important roles in control of gammaherpesvirus latency. J Virol 2004; 78:12519-28. [PMID: 15507639 PMCID: PMC525076 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.22.12519-12528.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Gammaherpesviruses can establish lifelong latent infections in lymphoid cells of their hosts despite active antiviral immunity. Identification of the immune mechanisms which regulate gammaherpesvirus latent infection is therefore essential for understanding how gammaherpesviruses persist for the lifetime of their host. Recently, an individual with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection was found to have mutations in perforin, and studies using murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) as a small-animal model for gammaherpesvirus infection have similarly revealed a critical role for perforin in regulating latent infection. These results suggest involvement of the perforin/granzyme granule exocytosis pathway in immune regulation of gammaherpesvirus latent infection. In this study, we examined gammaHV68 infection of knockout mice to identify specific molecules within the perforin/granzyme pathway which are essential for regulating gammaherpesvirus latent infection. We show that granzymes A and B and the granzyme B substrate, caspase 3, are important for regulating gammaHV68 latent infection. Interestingly, we show for the first time that orphan granzymes encoded in the granzyme B gene cluster are also critical for regulating viral infection. The requirement for specific granzymes differs for early versus late forms of latent infection. These data indicate that different granzymes play important and distinct roles in regulating latent gammaherpesvirus infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joy Loh
- Dept. of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid, Box 8118, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Han D, Xu X, Baidal D, Leith J, Ricordi C, Alejandro R, Kenyon NS. Assessment of cytotoxic lymphocyte gene expression in the peripheral blood of human islet allograft recipients: elevation precedes clinical evidence of rejection. Diabetes 2004; 53:2281-90. [PMID: 15331537 DOI: 10.2337/diabetes.53.9.2281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Studies in nonhuman primates have demonstrated that elevation of the cytotoxic lymphocyte (CL) genes granzyme B, perforin, and Fas ligand in peripheral blood precedes islet allograft rejection. The purpose of this study was to determine whether this approach has utility for prediction of human islet allograft loss. We studied 13 patients who had long-term type 1 diabetes and were treated with steroid-free immunosuppression and given sequential islet cell infusions. All recipients became insulin independent, and eight of them experienced deterioration in glycemic control, followed by reinitiation of insulin therapy. Frequent peripheral blood samples were collected to monitor CL gene mRNA levels with real-time PCR. For the eight back-to-insulin patients, there was a clear elevation of CL gene mRNA levels 25-203 days before the onset of frequent hyperglycemia. Granzyme B was the most reliable indicator of ongoing graft loss. Additional correlations with infection were noted; however, evidence of sensitization in antidonor mixed lymphocyte reaction was observed in seven of eight patients who experienced partial graft loss, whereas this was not seen when upregulated CL gene expression was associated with infection. The results suggest that, when taken into consideration with other clinical parameters, elevated CL gene levels may enable prediction of islet allograft loss.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Han
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Avenue (R-134), Miami, FL 33136, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Thomas LD, Shah H, Green SA, Bankhurst AD, Whalen MM. Tributyltin exposure causes decreased granzyme B and perforin levels in human natural killer cells. Toxicology 2004; 200:221-33. [PMID: 15212818 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2004.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2004] [Revised: 03/13/2004] [Accepted: 04/10/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Natural Killer (NK) cells are a subset of lymphocytes that are capable of killing tumor cells, virally infected cells and antibody coated cells. Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as: slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, anti-fouling agents in shower curtains and the preservation of wood. TBT can be found in edible items such as dairy products and fish. This study investigates the mechanism by which TBT exposure decreases the immune function of human NK cells, in vitro. Cytotoxic function, the expression of the cytotoxic proteins (granzyme B and perforin), and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation were examined. NK cells exposed to 300 nM TBT for 1 h showed no significant decrease in cytotoxic function, levels of granzyme B and perforin, or phosphorylation of CREB. However, mRNA levels for the cytotoxic proteins were significantly decreased. A 24 h exposure to 200 nM TBT caused significant decreases in cytotoxic function, levels of granzyme B and perforin, and levels of granzyme B and perforin mRNA. When NK cells were exposed to 300 nM TBT for 1h followed by a 24 h period in TBT-free media, again there were significant decreases in NK cell cytotoxic function, levels of granzyme B and perforin and their mRNA. A 1h exposure to 300 nM TBT followed by a 48 h period in TBT-free media showed similar changes in cytotoxic function and levels of granzyme B and perforin as seen after 24 h in TBT-free media. Additionally, both of these exposures showed significant decreases in phosphorylation of CREB. These results indicate that TBT exposures can disrupt the transcription of granzyme B and perforin and that this disruption cannot be entirely accounted for by a decrease in phosphorylated CREB (phosphoCREB) levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- LeeShawn D Thomas
- Department of Medicine, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Johnson BJ, Costelloe EO, Fitzpatrick DR, Haanen JBAG, Schumacher TNM, Brown LE, Kelso A. Single-cell perforin and granzyme expression reveals the anatomical localization of effector CD8+ T cells in influenza virus-infected mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:2657-62. [PMID: 12601154 PMCID: PMC151396 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0538056100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza virus infection activates cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL) that contribute to viral clearance by releasing perforin and granzymes from cytoplasmic granules. Virus-specific, perforin-dependent CD8(+) CTL were detected in freshly isolated cells from the mouse lung parenchyma but not from the mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN), where they are primed, or from the spleen during primary influenza virus infection. To determine whether this difference was due to the low frequency or incomplete maturation of effector CTL in MLN, we measured expression of perforin, granzymes A, B, and C, and IFN-gamma mRNAs in CD8(+) populations and single cells immediately after isolation from virus-infected mice. Quantitative PCR revealed significant expression of perforin, granzyme A, granzyme B, and IFN-gamma in activated CD8(+) cells from MLN, spleen, and lung parenchyma. Granzyme C expression was not detected. Individual activated or nucleoprotein peptide/class I tetramer-binding CD8(+) cells from the three tissues expressed diverse combinations of perforin, granzyme, and IFN-gamma mRNAs. Although cells from lung expressed granzymes A and B at higher frequency, each of the tissues contained cells that coexpressed perforin with granzymes A and/or B. The main difference between MLN and lung was the elevated frequency of activated CD8(+) T cells in the lung, rather than their perforin/granzyme expression profile. The data suggest that some CTL mature into perforin/granzyme-expressing effector cells in MLN but reach detectable frequencies only when they accumulate in the infected lung.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara J Johnson
- Cooperative Research Centre for Vaccine Technology and Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Post Office Royal Brisbane Hospital, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kelso A, Costelloe EO, Johnson BJ, Groves P, Buttigieg K, Fitzpatrick DR. The genes for perforin, granzymes A-C and IFN-gamma are differentially expressed in single CD8(+) T cells during primary activation. Int Immunol 2002; 14:605-13. [PMID: 12039912 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxf028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we show that the genes for perforin, the three major T cell granzymes (A-C) and IFN-gamma are differentially expressed during primary activation of naive CD8(+) T cells, kinetically and at the single-cell level. When CD44(low)CD62L(high)CD8(+) lymph node T cells were activated with IL-2 and immobilized antibodies to CD3, CD8 and CD11a, expression of perforin, granzyme B and IFN-gamma mRNAs was induced by day 2, and increased in parallel with perforin-dependent cytolytic activity. Granzyme C and A transcripts were not detected until 1 and 3 days later respectively. Single-cell PCR showed that expression frequencies rose in parallel with total levels of each mRNA, but that individual cells expressed diverse combinations of perforin, granzyme A-C and IFN-gamma mRNAs. These expression patterns indicated that the delayed expression of granzymes A and C was not due to late activation of distinct cell subpopulations. Statistical analysis of the data suggested that each gene was differentially regulated at the single-cell level. Individual naive CD8(+) T cells gave rise over 7 days to clones that expressed all five products at the clonal level, but also expressed diverse combinations at the single-cell level. We conclude that, during primary activation, CD8(+) T cells progressively acquired the ability to express most or all of these genes, and that the variable expression patterns observed among single cells within clones and populations reflected transient rather than heritable differences in expression profile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Kelso
- The Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Gorak‐Stolinska P, Truman J, Kemeny DM, Noble A. Activation‐induced cell death of human T‐cell subsets is mediated by Fas and granzyme B but is independent of TNF‐α. J Leukoc Biol 2001. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.70.5.756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jean‐Philip Truman
- Guy’s, King’s and St. Thomas’ School of Medicine, Rayne Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - David M. Kemeny
- Guy’s, King’s and St. Thomas’ School of Medicine, Rayne Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair Noble
- Guy’s, King’s and St. Thomas’ School of Medicine, Rayne Institute, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
McElhaney JE, Gravenstein S, Upshaw CM, Hooton JW, Krause P, Drinka P, Bleackley RC. Granzyme B: a marker of risk for influenza in institutionalized older adults. Vaccine 2001; 19:3744-51. [PMID: 11395209 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(01)00087-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Risk for influenza increases with age while cellular immune responses decline. This was a prospective study to determine the relationship between cytokine and granzyme B levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with live influenza virus, and subsequent influenza illness. Granzyme B levels were lower in the group who later developed symptomatic laboratory-confirmed influenza (n=10) compared to the group who did not (n=90) (ANOVA, P=0.024). In contrast, none of the cytokine levels were related to the development of influenza. Thus, granzyme B is a potential marker of influenza risk in older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E McElhaney
- Glennan Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 825 Fairfax Avenue, Suite 201, Norfolk, VA 23507-1912, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Sayers TJ, Brooks AD, Ward JM, Hoshino T, Bere WE, Wiegand GW, Kelly JM, Smyth MJ, Kelley JM. The restricted expression of granzyme M in human lymphocytes. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:765-71. [PMID: 11145648 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.2.765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have analyzed the expression of human granzyme M (Gzm M) in various human leukocyte subsets using the specific mAb 4H10. Using FACS and Western blotting analysis we compared the expression of Gzm M with that of other granzymes (Gzm A and Gzm B) and the lytic protein perforin. Human Gzm M was constitutively highly expressed in NK cells as was perforin and Gzm A. Surprisingly, freshly isolated NK cells had very low (sometimes undetectable) levels of Gzm B. In contrast to Gzm B and perforin, Gzm M was not detected in highly purified CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells either constitutively or after short term activation in vitro. However, low levels of Gzm M were observed in some T cell clones on prolonged passage in vitro. Gzm M was not detected in highly purified neutrophils, monocytes, or tumor cells of the myelomonocytic lineage. Examination of minor T cell subsets from human peripheral blood showed detectable Gzm M in CD3(+), CD56(+) T cells and gammadelta T cells. A histological staining procedure was developed that demonstrated a granular staining pattern for Gzm M and a cellular distribution similar to that observed by Western blotting. These data indicate that the expression of Gzm M does not always correlate with the lytic activity of cytotoxic cells. However, expression of Gzm M in NK cells, CD3(+), CD56(+) T cells, and gammadelta T cells suggests that this enzyme may play some role in innate immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T J Sayers
- Intramural Research Support Program, Science Applications International Corporation-Frederick, Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Division of Basic Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702-1201, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Fraser SA, Karimi R, Michalak M, Hudig D. Perforin lytic activity is controlled by calreticulin. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:4150-5. [PMID: 10754310 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.8.4150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The components within cytotoxic lymphocyte granules are responsible for a significant fraction of T and NK cell-mediated death. Perforin is stored in these granules together with calreticulin. Calreticulin has long been recognized as a chaperone protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is the only resident ER protein to be found in the cytotoxic granules. Here we implicate a role for calreticulin in killing and report that it controls osmotic lysis mediated by purified perforin. Calreticulin, at a concentration of 2.2 x 10-7 M, completely blocked perforin-mediated lysis. Inhibition was stable and held over 5 h. Recombinant calreticulin, at a concentration of 8. 8 x 10-7 M, also blocked lysis, indicating the inhibition was due to calreticulin and not a copurifying protein in the native calreticulin preparations. Using calreticulin domain fragments (expressed as GST fusion proteins), we found inhibitory activity in the high-capacity calcium-binding C-domain, which does not bind perforin. The N- or P-domains, which can bind perforin, were unable to block lysis. The inhibition of lysis was independent of granzyme inactivation or the ability of calreticulin to sequester calcium. Our data indicate that calreticulin regulation of perforin-mediated lysis probably occurs without direct interaction with perforin. We propose a novel model in which calreticulin stabilizes membranes to prevent polyperforin pore formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S A Fraser
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, School of Medicine and College of Agriculture, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kam CM, Hudig D, Powers JC. Granzymes (lymphocyte serine proteases): characterization with natural and synthetic substrates and inhibitors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2000; 1477:307-23. [PMID: 10708866 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4838(99)00282-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) kill cells within an organism to defend it against viral infections and the growth of tumors. One mechanism of killing involves exocytosis of lymphocyte granules which causes pores to form in the membranes of the attacked cells, fragments nuclear DNA and leads to cell death. The cytotoxic granules contain perforin, a pore-forming protein, and a family of at least 11 serine proteases termed granzymes. Both perforin and granzymes are involved in the lytic activity. Although the biological functions of most granzymes remain to be resolved, granzyme B clearly promotes DNA fragmentation and is directly involved in cell death. Potential natural substrates for Gr B include procaspases and other proteins involved in cell death. Activated caspases are involved in apoptosis. The search continues for natural substrates for the other granzymes. The first granzyme crystal structure remains to be resolved, but in the interim, molecular models of granzymes have provided valuable structural information about their substrate binding sites. The information has been useful to predict the amino acid sequences that immediately flank each side of the scissile peptide bond of peptide and protein substrates. Synthetic substrates, such as peptide thioesters, nitroanilides and aminomethylcoumarins, have also been used to study the substrate specificity of granzymes. The different granzymes have one of four primary substrate specificities: tryptase (cleaving after Arg or Lys), Asp-ase (cleaving after Asp), Met-ase (cleaving after Met or Leu), and chymase (cleaving after Phe, Tyr, or Trp). Natural serpins and synthetic inhibitors (including isocoumarins, peptide chloromethyl ketones, and peptide phosphonates) inhibit granzymes. Studies of substrate and inhibitor kinetics are providing valuable information to identify the most likely natural granzyme substrates and provide tools for the study of key reactions in the cytolytic mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C M Kam
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sarafova SD, Siu G. Control of CD4 gene expression: connecting signals to outcomes in T cell development. Braz J Med Biol Res 1999; 32:785-803. [PMID: 10454736 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x1999000700001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The control of CD4 gene expression is essential for proper T lymphocyte development. Signals transmitted from the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) during the thymic selection processes are believed to be linked to the regulation of CD4 gene expression during specific stages of T cell development. Thus, a study of the factors that control CD4 gene expression may lead to further insight into the molecular mechanisms that drive thymic selection. In this review, we discuss the work conducted to date to identify and characterize the cis-acting transcriptional control elements in the CD4 locus and the DNA-binding factors that mediate their function. From these studies, it is becoming clear that the molecular mechanisms controlling CD4 gene expression are very complex and differ at each stage of development. Thus, the control of CD4 expression is subject to many different influences as the thymocyte develops.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S D Sarafova
- Department of Microbiology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Hyodo Y, Matsui K, Hayashi N, Tsutsui H, Kashiwamura SI, Yamauchi H, Hiroishi K, Takeda K, Tagawa YI, Iwakura Y, Kayagaki N, Kurimoto M, Okamura H, Hada T, Yagita H, Akira S, Nakanishi2 K, Higashino K. IL-18 Up-Regulates Perforin-Mediated NK Activity Without Increasing Perforin Messenger RNA Expression by Binding to Constitutively Expressed IL-18 Receptor. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1999. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.162.3.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
IL-18 is a powerful inducer of IFN-γ production, particularly in collaboration with IL-12. IL-18, like IL-12, also augments NK activity. Here we investigated the molecular mechanism underlying the up-regulation of killing activity of NK cells by IL-18. IL-18, like IL-12, dose dependently enhanced NK activity of splenocytes. This action was further enhanced by costimulation with IL-12. Treatment with anti-IL-2R Ab did not affect IL-18- and/or IL-12-augmented NK activity, and splenocytes from IFN-γ-deficient mice showed enhanced NK activity following stimulation with IL-12 and/or IL-18. Splenocytes from the mice deficient in both IL-12 and IL-18 normally responded to IL-18 and/or IL-12 with facilitated NK activity, suggesting that functional NK cells develop in the absence of IL-12 and IL-18. IL-18R, as well as IL-12R mRNA, was constitutively expressed in splenocytes from SCID mice, which lack T cells and B cells but have intact NK cells, and in those from IL-12 and IL-18 double knockout mice. NK cells isolated from SCID splenocytes expressed IL-18R on their surface. IL-18, in contrast to IL-12, did not enhance mRNA expression of perforin, a key molecule for exocytosis-mediated cytotoxicity. However, pretreatment with concanamycin A completely inhibited this IL-18- and/or IL-12-augmented NK activity. Furthermore, IL-18, like IL-12, failed to enhance NK activity of splenocytes from perforin-deficient mice. These data suggested that NK cells develop and express IL-12R and IL-18R in the absence of IL-12 or IL-18, and that both IL-18 and IL-12 directly and independently augment perforin-mediated cytotoxic activity of NK cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Shin-ichiro Kashiwamura
- §Laboratory of Host Defenses Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamauchi
- ¶Fujisaki Institute, Hayashibara Biochemical Laboratories, Okayama, Japan
| | | | | | - Yoh-ichi Tagawa
- ∥Center for Experimental Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; and
| | - Yoichiro Iwakura
- ∥Center for Experimental Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; and
| | - Nobuhiko Kayagaki
- #Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masashi Kurimoto
- ¶Fujisaki Institute, Hayashibara Biochemical Laboratories, Okayama, Japan
| | - Haruki Okamura
- §Laboratory of Host Defenses Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | | | - Hideo Yagita
- #Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shizuo Akira
- ‡Department of Biochemistry and
- §Laboratory of Host Defenses Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kenji Nakanishi2
- †Department of Immunology and Medical Zoology,
- §Laboratory of Host Defenses Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kazuya Higashino
- *Third Department of Internal Medicine,
- §Laboratory of Host Defenses Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Affiliation(s)
- A J Darmon
- Medical Research Council Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Mabee CL, McGuire MJ, Thiele DL. Dipeptidyl Peptidase I and Granzyme A Are Coordinately Expressed During CD8+ T Cell Development and Differentiation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1998. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.160.12.5880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Dipeptidyl peptidase I (DPPI) is a granule protease that plays a requisite role in processing the proenzyme form of the CTL granule serine proteases (granzymes). This study assesses DPPI mRNA and enzyme expression during T lymphocyte ontogeny and CTL differentiation. The most immature CD3−CD4−CD8− thymocytes were found to express >40-fold higher levels of DPPI mRNA, although levels of DPPI enzymatic activity in CD3−CD4−CD8− thymocytes were only modestly higher than those seen for CD4+CD8+ or CD4+CD8− thymocytes. More mature CD8+CD4− thymocytes and CD8+ splenocytes expressed significantly higher levels of DPPI mRNA and enzymatic activity than CD4+CD8+ or CD4+CD8− thymocytes. Granzyme A mRNA expression was observed in DPPI expressing CD3−CD4−CD8− and CD8+CD4− thymocytes and was also observed in CD8+CD4− splenocytes; however, expression was not observed in CD4+CD8+ or CD4+CD8− thymocytes. Both DPPI mRNA and granzyme A mRNA expression in CD8+ T cells decreased to very low or undetectable levels during the first 48 h after allostimulation in MLCs. However, peak levels of both DPPI and granzyme A expression were observed later in the course of CD8+ T cell responses to alloantigen, with DPPI mRNA expression peaking on either day 3 or day 4 and granzyme A expression peaking at the end of a 5-day MLR. These data indicate that DPPI is expressed at all stages of T cell ontogeny and differentiation in which granzyme A mRNA is detected; consequently, DPPI appears to be available for the processing and activation of granzyme A during both CD8+ T cell development and differentiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L. Mabee
- Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235
| | - Michael J. McGuire
- Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235
| | - Dwain L. Thiele
- Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX 75235
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Woodard SL, Fraser SA, Winkler U, Jackson DS, Kam CM, Powers JC, Hudig D. Purification and Characterization of Lymphocyte Chymase I, a Granzyme Implicated in Perforin-Mediated Lysis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1998. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.160.10.4988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
One mechanism of killing by cytotoxic lymphocytes involves the exocytosis of specialized granules. The released granules contain perforin, which assembles into pores in the membranes of cells targeted for death. Serine proteases termed granzymes are present in the cytotoxic granules and include several chymases (with chymotrypsin-like specificity of cleavage). One chymase is selectively reactive with an inhibitor, Biotinyl-Aca-Aca-Phe-Leu-PheP(OPh)2, that blocks perforin lysis. We report the purification and characterization of this chymase, lymphocyte chymase I, from rat natural killer cell (RNK)-16 granules. Lymphocyte chymase I is 30 kDa with a pH 7.5 to 9 optimum and primary substrate preference for tryptophan, a preference distinct from rat mast cell chymases. This chymase also reacts with other selective serine protease inhibitors that block perforin pore formation. It elutes by Cu2+-immobilized metal affinity chromatography with other granzymes and has the N-terminal protein sequence conserved among granzymes. Chymase I reduces pore formation when preincubated with perforin at 37°C. In contrast, addition of the chymase without preincubation had little effect on lysis. It should be noted that the perforin preparation contained sufficient residual chymase activity to support lysis. Thus, the reduction of lysis may represent an effect of excess prolytic chymase I or a means to limit perforin lysis of bystander cells. In contrast, other chymases and granzyme K were without effect when added to perforin during similar preincubation. Identification of the natural substrate of chymase I will help resolve how it regulates perforin-mediated pore formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephanie A. Fraser
- ‡The Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557; and
| | | | - Delwin S. Jackson
- §School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332
| | - Chih-Min Kam
- §School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332
| | - James C. Powers
- §School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332
| | - Dorothy Hudig
- *Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine,
- †School of Veterinary Sciences, and
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Greene AL, Makrigiannis AP, Fitzpatrick L, Hoskin DW. Anti-CD3-activated killer T cells: Interleukin-6 modulates the induction of major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted cytotoxicity and the expression of genes coding for cytotoxic effector molecules. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1997; 17:727-37. [PMID: 9452360 DOI: 10.1089/jir.1997.17.727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We have investigated the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the induction of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-unrestricted cytotoxicity, as well as granzyme B, perforin, and Fas ligand gene expression, following mouse T lymphocyte activation with anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody (mAb). The generation of anti-CD3-activated killer-T (AK-T) cells was inhibited when anti-IL-6 neutralizing mAb was added at initiation of culture but not 24 h later, indicating that IL-6 is involved at an early stage of AK-T cell development. However, AK-T cell induction in the presence of exogenous IL-6 did not result in enhanced cytotoxicity, suggesting that saturating levels of IL-6 are normally synthesized in AK-T cell cultures. The inhibitory effect of IL-6 neutralization on AK-T cell generation could not be attributed to a defect in AK-T cell proliferation or to an inability of AK-T cells to recognize and adhere to P815 tumor target cells. However, IL-2 synthesis and CD25 expression were downregulated in AK-T cell cultures performed in the presence of anti-IL-6 mAb. In addition, IL-6 neutralization resulted in decreased expression of granzyme B and perforin, but not Fas ligand, mRNA. Exogenous IL-2 (50 U/ml) added at initiation of culture completely reversed the inhibitory effect of anti-IL-6 mAb on AK-T cell development, restoring CD25 expression and tumoricidal activity, as well as granzyme B and perforin mRNA expression, to control levels. We conclude that IL-6 modulates AK-T cell induction through an IL-2-dependent mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A L Greene
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Babichuk CK, Bleackley RC. Mutational analysis of the murine granzyme B gene promoter in primary T cells and a T cell clone. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:18564-71. [PMID: 9228022 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.30.18564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The granzyme B gene is induced in cytotoxic T lymphocytes in response to antigenic stimulation. Previous studies have identified several distinct regions in the granzyme B promoter which may be important in either the induction or the T cell specificity of the gene. These regions contain the canonical transcription factor binding sites AP1, cyclic AMP-responsive element (CRE), Ikaros, and core-binding factor (CBF/PEBP2). Each protein binding site was disrupted by site-directed mutagenesis to investigate its role in granzyme B promoter function. Mutations were introduced alone, or in various combinations, within the context of a 243-base pair promoter fragment known to confer high levels of reporter gene expression. Transfection assays revealed that all of the single binding site mutant promoters were capable of sustaining moderate to high levels of transcriptional activity in primary activated T lymphocytes, whereas certain mutants were more impeded in a T cell clone. A quadruple mutant promoter, with only the CRE binding site intact, showed background expression levels. This drop in expression was found to be mostly due to mutations in AP1 and the 3' CBF binding sites. Their close proximity and requirement in promoter function suggest an important role for protein-protein interaction between these two factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C K Babichuk
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
AbstractUsing granzyme B–deficient mice obtained by gene targeting, we previously demonstrated that granzyme B is required for the rapid induction of apoptotic target cell death by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs); however, CTLs are also equipped with additional effector mechanisms. In the present study, we examined the mechanisms responsible for granzyme B–independent cytotoxicity using in vitro lytic assays with CTLs derived from mice deficient for both granzyme B and Fas ligand (FasL) (granzyme B−/− × gld/gld) or for perforin and FasL (perforin × gld/gld). Our results show that primary mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR)-derived CTLs from granzyme B−/− × gld/gld mice induce apoptosis of allogeneic targets with less efficiency and a longer delay than CTLs deficient for granzyme B alone. The residual cytotoxicity in granzyme B−/− × gld/gld CTLs is primarily accounted for by a perforin-dependent mechanism, since perforin−/− × gld/gld CTLs have virtually no residual cytotoxic activity in our assays. Granzyme B–independent cytotoxicity is therefore partially accounted for by the Fas pathway and partially by another perforin-dependent mechanism.
Collapse
|
27
|
Darmon AJ, Ley TJ, Nicholson DW, Bleackley RC. Cleavage of CPP32 by granzyme B represents a critical role for granzyme B in the induction of target cell DNA fragmentation. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:21709-12. [PMID: 8702964 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.36.21709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are able to recognize and destroy target cells bearing foreign antigen using one of two distinct mechanisms: granule- or Fas-mediated cytotoxicity. The exact mechanisms involved in the induction of apoptotic cell death remain elusive; however, it seems likely that a family of cysteine proteases related to interleukin-1beta converting enzyme are involved. One family member, CPP32, has been identified as an intracellular substrate for granzyme B, a CTL-specific serine protease responsible for the early induction of target cell DNA fragmentation. Here we use cytolytic cells from granzyme B-deficient mice to confirm that cleavage and activation of CPP32 represents a nonredundant role for granzyme B and that this activation plays a role in the induction of DNA fragmentation in target cells, a signature event for apoptotic cell death. A peptide inhibitor of CPP32-like proteases confirmed the function of these enzymes in fragmentation. 51Cr release was not suppressed under these conditions, suggesting that granzyme B cleavage of CPP32 is primarily involved in the induction of DNA fragmentation and not membrane damage during CTL-induced apoptosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A J Darmon
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Babichuk CK, Duggan BL, Bleackley RC. In vivo regulation of murine granzyme B gene transcription in activated primary T cells. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:16485-93. [PMID: 8663264 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.28.16485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A murine granzyme B promoter fragment that extends 243 base pairs upstream of the transcription start site confers high levels of luciferase reporter gene activity in transient transfection assays into T cells and mouse L cell fibroblasts. This promoter fragment contains canonical binding sites for the transcription factors AP-1, core binding factor (CBF), Ikaros, and the cyclic AMP responsive element binding protein (CREB). Oligonucleotides containing the granzyme B AP-1 or CBF elements form specific complexes with proteins present in nuclear extracts from activated CD8(+) splenocytes, MTL cells, EL4 T cells, and L cells. A strong DNase1 hypersensitive site that coincides with the closely associated AP-1, CBF, Ikaros, and CRE elements is present in activated CD8(+) T cells but not in resting T cells or L cells. Both in vitro and in vivo footprints are observed at these sequence elements in activated cytotoxic T cells (CTL) but not in resting T cells. The endogenous granzyme B gene is CTL-specific as no mRNA is detectable in EL4 or L cells. We propose that a condensed chromatin structure at the granzyme B promoter is responsible for transcription factor inaccessibility and repression of transcription in non-T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C K Babichuk
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Pinkoski MJ, Winkler U, Hudig D, Bleackley RC. Binding of granzyme B in the nucleus of target cells. Recognition of an 80-kilodalton protein. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:10225-9. [PMID: 8626587 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.17.10225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Granzyme B (cytotoxic cell proteinase 1) is a serine proteinase that has been implicated in cytotoxic T lymphocyte-induced apoptosis. In order to understand how granzyme B is involved in mechanisms of target cell destruction, characterization and identification of substrates are required. We have developed an in situ binding assay using permeabilized cells and recombinant granzyme B that allows us to visualize potential substrates after immunostaining with anti-granzyme B antiserum. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and immunoelectron microscopic analyses demonstrate that granzyme B recognizes a nuclear substrate. The labeling pattern observed corresponds with regions of positive staining with uranyl acetate which binds to heterochromatin in the nucleus. Positive labeling of target cells with granzyme B is dependent on the presence of a catalytically active proteinase, since an inactive proenzyme form of granzyme B fails to give rise to any binding in the target cells. Far-Western blotting and immunoprecipitation of subcellular fractions of target cells have shown that the putative substrate of catalytically active granzyme B is an 80-kDa nuclear protein. Minor cytosolic bands of 50 and 94 kDa are also observed. A cytoplasmic band of 69 kDa is detected by both active and zymogen forms of granzyme B.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J Pinkoski
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Shresta S, Heusel JW, Macivor DM, Wesselschmidt RL, Russell JH, Ley TJ. Granzyme B plays a critical role in cytotoxic lymphocyte-induced apoptosis. Immunol Rev 1995; 146:211-21. [PMID: 7493755 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1995.tb00690.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Shresta
- Department of Medicine, Washington University Medical School, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
The cytotoxic T cell proteinase granzyme B does not activate interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)31596-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
|
32
|
Heusel JW, Wesselschmidt RL, Shresta S, Russell JH, Ley TJ. Cytotoxic lymphocytes require granzyme B for the rapid induction of DNA fragmentation and apoptosis in allogeneic target cells. Cell 1994; 76:977-87. [PMID: 8137431 DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90376-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 682] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We have generated H-2b mice with a homozygous null mutation in the granzyme (gzm) B gene. Gzm B is a neutral serine protease with Aspase activity that is found only in the granules of activated cytolytic T cells, natural killer cells, and lymphokine-activated killer cells. Gzm B-/- mice develop normally and have normal hematopoiesis and lymphopoiesis. In vitro, cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) derived from gzm B-/- animals are able to induce 51Cr release from allotarget cells, but with reduced efficiency. However, gzm B-/- CTL have a profound defect in their ability to induce rapid DNA fragmentation and apoptosis in allogeneic target cells. This defect is kinetic since DNA fragmentation is partially compensated and 51Cr release is completely rescued with long incubation times. We conclude that gzm B serves a critical and nonredundant role for the rapid induction of target cell DNA fragmentation and apoptosis by alloreactive cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J W Heusel
- Department of Medicine, Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Abstract
The list of cells with cytotoxic potential now may include small resting T cells, but the exact nature of 'lethal hit delivery' by cytotoxic T lymphocytes remains elusive. Cell-mediated cytotoxicity by cytotoxic T lymphocytes is a complex, multistep process which seems likely to be mediated by several different pathways. Recent experimental evidence for the functioning of a novel cytotoxic mechanism through a target cell's surface receptor illustrates and emphasizes the necessity to study the interactions of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and target cells as a whole. Progress is evident in the description of molecular requirements for triggering cytotoxicity, cell-cell contacts and the regulation of the effector responses of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by extracellular, intracellular and granular proteins. Extracellular Ca(2+)-dependent secretion of perforin and protease(s) may explain several aspects of cellular cytotoxicity, whereas the apoptosis-mediating cell surface Fas protein is now implicated in Ca(2+)-independent cytotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Apasov
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Abstract
A subfamily of serine proteases is uniquely expressed by cytotoxic natural killer lymphocytes and T cells. Protease cleavage of different natural substrates is now implicated in the cytotoxic mechanisms of target cell membrane pore formation, DNA fragmentation and cytostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Hudig
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno 89557-0046
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Generation of active myeloid and lymphoid granule serine proteases requires processing by the granule thiol protease dipeptidyl peptidase I. J Biol Chem 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)53798-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
|