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Ji G, Xiong Y, Li Y, Yan G, Yao J, Fang C, Lu H. Global analysis of N-myristoylation and its heterogeneity by combining N-terminomics and nanographite fluoride-based solid-phase extraction. Talanta 2024; 276:126300. [PMID: 38795647 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
N-myristoylation is one of the most widespread and important lipidation in eukaryotes and some prokaryotes, which is formed by covalently attaching various fatty acids (predominantly myristic acid C14:0) to the N-terminal glycine of proteins. Disorder of N-myristoylation is critically implicated in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Here, we presented a method for purification and comprehensive characterization of endogenous, intact N-glycine lipid-acylated peptides, which combined the negative selection method for N-terminome and the nanographite fluoride-based solid-phase extraction method (NeS-nGF SPE). After optimizing experimental conditions, we conducted the first global profiling of the endogenous and heterogeneous modification states for N-terminal glycine, pinpointing the precise sites and their associated lipid moieties. Totally, we obtained 76 N-glycine lipid-acylated peptides, including 51 peptides with myristate (C14:0), 10 with myristoleate (C14:1), 6 with tetradecadienoicate (C14:2), 5 with laurate (C12:0) and 4 with lauroleate (C12:1). Therefore, our proteomic methodology could significantly facilitate precise and in-depth analysis of the endogenous N-myristoylome and its heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanghui Ji
- Department of Chemistry and Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Yingying Xiong
- Department of Chemistry and Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China
| | - Yueyue Li
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and NHC Key Laboratory of Glycoconjugates Research, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | - Guoquan Yan
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and NHC Key Laboratory of Glycoconjugates Research, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | - Jun Yao
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and NHC Key Laboratory of Glycoconjugates Research, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | - Caiyun Fang
- Department of Chemistry and Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China.
| | - Haojie Lu
- Department of Chemistry and Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, PR China; Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and NHC Key Laboratory of Glycoconjugates Research, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, PR China.
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2
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Xu Y, Lin H. Use of alkyne-tagged myristic acid to detect N-terminal myristoylation. Methods Enzymol 2023; 684:191-208. [PMID: 37230589 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2023.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Protein N-terminal myristoylation is a lipidic modification typically occurring to the α-amino group of N-terminal glycine residues of proteins. It is catalyzed by the N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) enzyme family. Many studies in the past three decades have highlighted the importance of N-terminal glycine myristoylation as it affects protein localization, protein-protein interaction, and protein stability, thereby regulating multiple biological processes, including immune cell signaling, cancer progression, and infections. This book chapter will present protocols for using alkyne-tagged myristic acid to detect the N-myristoylation of targeted proteins in cell lines and compare global N-myristoylation levels. We then described a protocol of SILAC proteomics that compare the levels of N-myristoylation on a proteomic scale. These assays allow for the identification of potential NMT substrates and the development of novel NMT inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilai Xu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Hening Lin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States.
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3
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Li X, Shen L, Xu Z, Liu W, Li A, Xu J. Protein Palmitoylation Modification During Viral Infection and Detection Methods of Palmitoylated Proteins. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:821596. [PMID: 35155279 PMCID: PMC8829041 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.821596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein palmitoylation—a lipid modification in which one or more cysteine thiols on a substrate protein are modified to form a thioester with a palmitoyl group—is a significant post-translational biological process. This process regulates the trafficking, subcellular localization, and stability of different proteins in cells. Since palmitoylation participates in various biological processes, it is related to the occurrence and development of multiple diseases. It has been well evidenced that the proteins whose functions are palmitoylation-dependent or directly involved in key proteins’ palmitoylation/depalmitoylation cycle may be a potential source of novel therapeutic drugs for the related diseases. Many researchers have reported palmitoylation of proteins, which are crucial for host-virus interactions during viral infection. Quite a few explorations have focused on figuring out whether targeting the acylation of viral or host proteins might be a strategy to combat viral diseases. All these remarkable achievements in protein palmitoylation have been made to technological advances. This paper gives an overview of protein palmitoylation modification during viral infection and the methods for palmitoylated protein detection. Future challenges and potential developments are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Li
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lingyi Shen
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhao Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wei Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Aihua Li
- Clinical Lab, Henan Provincial Chest Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jun Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jun Xu, ;
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Hedgehog Acyltransferase Promotes Uptake of Palmitoyl-CoA across the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane. Cell Rep 2020; 29:4608-4619.e4. [PMID: 31875564 PMCID: PMC6948154 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.11.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Attachment of palmitate to the N terminus of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is essential for Shh signaling. Shh palmitoylation is catalyzed on the luminal side of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by Hedgehog acyltransferase (Hhat), an ER-resident enzyme. Palmitoyl-coenzyme A (CoA), the palmitate donor, is produced in the cytosol and is not permeable across membrane bilayers. It is not known how palmitoyl-CoA crosses the ER membrane to access the active site of Hhat. Here, we use fluorescent and radiolabeled palmitoyl-CoA probes to demonstrate that Hhat promotes the uptake of palmitoyl-CoA across the ER membrane in microsomes and semi-intact cells. Reconstitution of purified Hhat into liposomes provided further evidence that palmitoyl-CoA uptake activity is an intrinsic property of Hhat. Palmitoyl-CoA uptake was regulated by and could be uncoupled from Hhat enzymatic activity, implying that Hhat serves a dual function as a palmitoyl acyltransferase and a conduit to supply palmitoyl-CoA to the luminal side of the ER. Palmitoylation of hedgehog proteins by Hedgehog acyltransferase (Hhat) occurs on the luminal side of the ER. However, the palmitoyl-CoA donor for the reaction is membrane impermeable. Asciolla and Resh show that Hhat serves a dual function as both an acyltransferase and a transporter that promotes palmitoyl-CoA uptake across the ER membrane.
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Jiang H, Zhang X, Chen X, Aramsangtienchai P, Tong Z, Lin H. Protein Lipidation: Occurrence, Mechanisms, Biological Functions, and Enabling Technologies. Chem Rev 2018; 118:919-988. [PMID: 29292991 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Protein lipidation, including cysteine prenylation, N-terminal glycine myristoylation, cysteine palmitoylation, and serine and lysine fatty acylation, occurs in many proteins in eukaryotic cells and regulates numerous biological pathways, such as membrane trafficking, protein secretion, signal transduction, and apoptosis. We provide a comprehensive review of protein lipidation, including descriptions of proteins known to be modified and the functions of the modifications, the enzymes that control them, and the tools and technologies developed to study them. We also highlight key questions about protein lipidation that remain to be answered, the challenges associated with answering such questions, and possible solutions to overcome these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Jiang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Zhang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Xiao Chen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Pornpun Aramsangtienchai
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Zhen Tong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Hening Lin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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6
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Gao X, Hannoush RN. A Decade of Click Chemistry in Protein Palmitoylation: Impact on Discovery and New Biology. Cell Chem Biol 2017; 25:236-246. [PMID: 29290622 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein palmitoylation plays diverse roles in regulating the trafficking, stability, and activity of cellular proteins. The advent of click chemistry has propelled the field of protein palmitoylation forward by providing specific, sensitive, rapid, and easy-to-handle methods for studying protein palmitoylation. This year marks the 10th anniversary since the first click chemistry-based fatty acid probes for detecting protein lipid modifications were reported. The goal of this review is to highlight key biological advancements in the field of protein palmitoylation during the past 10 years. In particular, we discuss the impact of click chemistry on enabling protein palmitoylation proteomics methods, uncovering novel lipid modifications on proteins and elucidating their functions, as well as the development of non-radioactive biochemical and enzymatic assays. In addition, this review provides context for building and exploring new research avenues in protein palmitoylation through the use of clickable fatty acid probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Gao
- Department of Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rami N Hannoush
- Department of Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA.
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7
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Abstract
Proteins are acylated by a variety of metabolites that regulates many important cellular pathways in all kingdoms of life. Acyl groups in cells can vary in structure from the smallest unit, acetate, to modified long-chain fatty acids, all of which can be activated and covalently attached to diverse amino acid side chains and consequently modulate protein function. For example, acetylation of Lys residues can alter the charge state of proteins and generate new recognition elements for protein-protein interactions. Alternatively, long-chain fatty-acylation targets proteins to membranes and enables spatial control of cell signalling. To facilitate the analysis of protein acylation in biology, acyl analogues bearing alkyne or azide tags have been developed that enable fluorescent imaging and proteomic profiling of modified proteins using bioorthogonal ligation methods. Herein, we summarize the currently available acylation chemical reporters and highlight their utility to discover and quantify the roles of protein acylation in biology.
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Abstract
Wnt palmitoylation regulates its secretion and signaling activity in cells. Methods to monitor cellular Wnt palmitoylation are instrumental in investigating Wnt activity, secretion, and its interaction with cellular membrane compartments. This protocol describes a method we have recently developed to detect cellular Wnt palmitoylation. The method, combining click chemistry, bio-orthogonal fatty acid probes, and proximity ligation assay (PLA), provides high sensitivity and subcellular resolution for detection of Wnt palmitoylation. It is also compatible with multiple imaging platforms, and is applicable to detecting palmitoylated forms of other fatty acylated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Gao
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, 75390-9039, USA
| | - Rami N Hannoush
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, 75390-9039, USA.
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Abstract
Dissecting the subcellular distribution of a fatty-acylated protein is key to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating protein movement and function in a cell. This protocol describes how to perform single-cell imaging of palmitoylation in a fatty-acylated protein of interest with high sensitivity using click chemistry, proximity ligation and fluorescence microscopy. The initial steps in this protocol involve optimization of conditions for (i) metabolic incorporation of an alkynyl analog of palmitic acid into cellular proteins coupled with click chemistry and (ii) detecting a specific protein of interest with primary antibodies using automated fluorescence microscopy, followed by (iii) imaging palmitoylation of the target fatty-acylated protein of interest, such as Wnt, Sonic Hedgehog or H-Ras. Furthermore, we outline strategies for imaging specific fatty-acylated proteins with subcellular organelles and/or total proteome palmitoylation, and we discuss special considerations that need to be given depending on the experimental design. The use of clickable fatty acids with proximity ligation may have promising applications to the investigation of fatty acylation cell biology. The entire protocol takes ∼3 weeks to complete.
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Rios-Esteves J, Haugen B, Resh MD. Identification of key residues and regions important for porcupine-mediated Wnt acylation. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:17009-19. [PMID: 24798332 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.561209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Wnts comprise a family of lipid-modified, secreted signaling proteins that control embryogenesis, as well as tissue homeostasis in adults. Post-translational attachment of palmitoleate (C16:1) to a conserved Ser in Wnt proteins is catalyzed by Porcupine (Porcn), a member of the membrane bound O-acyltransferase (MBOAT) family, and is required for Wnt secretion and signaling. Moreover, genetic alterations in the PORCN gene lead to focal dermal hypoplasia, an X-linked developmental disorder. Despite its physiological importance, the biochemical mechanism governing Wnt acylation by Porcn is poorly understood. Here, we use a cell-based fatty acylation assay that is a direct readout of Porcn acyltransferase activity to perform structure-function analysis of highly conserved residues in Porcn and Wnt3a. In total, 16-point mutations in Porcn and 13 mutations in Wnt3a were generated and analyzed. We identified key residues within Porcn required for enzymatic activity, stability, and Wnt3a binding and mapped these active site residues to predicted transmembrane domain 9. Analysis of focal dermal hypoplasia-associated mutations in Porcn revealed that loss of enzymatic activity arises from altered stability. A consensus sequence within Wnt3a was identified (CXCHGXSXXCXXKXC) that contains residues that mediate Porcn binding, fatty acid transfer, and Wnt signaling. We also showed that Ser or Thr, but not Cys, can serve as a fatty acylation site in Wnt, establishing Porcn as an O-acyltransferase. This analysis sheds light into the mechanism by which Porcn transfers fatty acids to Wnt proteins and provides insight into the mechanisms of fatty acid transfer by MBOAT family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Rios-Esteves
- From the Cell Biology Program and the Gerstner Sloan-Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065
| | - Brittany Haugen
- From the Cell Biology Program and the Gerstner Sloan-Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065
| | - Marilyn D Resh
- From the Cell Biology Program and the Gerstner Sloan-Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065
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11
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Metabolic labeling of Ras with tritiated palmitate to monitor palmitoylation and depalmitoylation. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1120:33-41. [PMID: 24470017 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-791-4_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic labeling with tritiated palmitate is a direct method for monitoring posttranslational modification of Ras proteins with this fatty acid. Advances in intensifying screens have allowed for the easy visualization of tritium without the need for extended exposure times. While more energetic radioisotopes are easier to visualize, the lack of commercial source and need for shielding make them more difficult to work with. Since radiolabeled palmitate is directly incorporated into Ras, its loss can be monitored by traditional pulse-chase experiments that cannot be accomplished with the method of acyl-exchange chemistry. As such, tritiated palmitate remains a readily accessible and direct method for monitoring the palmitoylation status of Ras proteins under a multitude of conditions.
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12
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Rios-Esteves J, Resh MD. Stearoyl CoA desaturase is required to produce active, lipid-modified Wnt proteins. Cell Rep 2013; 4:1072-81. [PMID: 24055053 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2013.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Wnt proteins contain palmitoleic acid, an unusual lipid modification. Production of an active Wnt signal requires the acyltransferase Porcupine and depends on the attachment of palmitoleic acid to Wnt. The source of this monounsaturated fatty acid has not been identified, and it is not known how Porcupine recognizes its substrate and whether desaturation occurs before or after fatty acid transfer to Wnt. Here, we show that stearoyl desaturase (SCD) generates a monounsaturated fatty acid substrate that is then transferred by Porcupine to Wnt. Treatment of cells with SCD inhibitors blocked incorporation of palmitate analogs into Wnt3a and Wnt5a and reduced Wnt secretion as well as autocrine and paracrine Wnt signaling. The SCD inhibitor effects were rescued by exogenous addition of monounsaturated fatty acids. We propose that SCD is a key molecular player responsible for Wnt biogenesis and processing and that SCD inhibition provides an alternative mechanism for blocking Wnt pathway activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Rios-Esteves
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Gerstner Sloan-Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
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13
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Hannoush RN. Development of chemical probes for biochemical detection and cellular imaging of myristoylated and palmitoylated proteins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 3:15-26. [PMID: 23836586 DOI: 10.1002/9780470559277.ch100143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Fatty acylation of proteins regulates their spatial localization and activity in living cells. Methods to monitor fatty acylation are invaluable for studying its role in regulating protein dynamics. The protocols in this unit describe a procedure that involves metabolic labeling with ω-alkynyl fatty acids for detecting and cellular imaging of fatty-acylated proteins, namely myristoylated and palmitoylated proteins. Curr. Protoc. Chem. Biol. 3:15-26 © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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14
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Inhibitors of Hedgehog acyltransferase block Sonic Hedgehog signaling. Nat Chem Biol 2013; 9:247-9. [PMID: 23416332 PMCID: PMC3604071 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Inhibition of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling is of great clinical interest. Here we exploit Hedgehog acyltransferase (Hhat)-mediated Shh palmitoylation, a modification critical for Shh signaling, as a new target for Shh pathway inhibition. A target-oriented high-throughput screen was used to identify small-molecule inhibitors of Hhat. In cells, these Hhat inhibitors specifically block Shh palmitoylation and inhibit autocrine and paracrine Shh signaling.
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15
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Hardy RY, Resh MD. Identification of N-terminal residues of Sonic Hedgehog important for palmitoylation by Hedgehog acyltransferase. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:42881-9. [PMID: 23112049 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.426833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) is a secreted morphogen that regulates embryonic development. After removal of the signal peptide, Shh is processed to the mature, active form through autocleavage and a series of lipid modifications, including the attachment of palmitate. Covalent attachment of palmitate to the N-terminal cysteine of Shh is catalyzed by Hedgehog acyltransferase (Hhat) and is critical for proper signaling. The sequences within Shh that are responsible for palmitoylation by Hhat are not known. Here we show that the first six amino acids of mature Shh (CGPGRG) are sufficient for Hhat-mediated palmitoylation. Alanine scanning mutagenesis was used to determine the role of each amino acid and the positional sequence requirement in a cell-based Shh palmitoylation assay. Mutation of residues in the GPGR sequence to Ala had no effect on palmitoylation, provided that a positively charged residue was present within the first seven residues. The N-terminal position exhibited a strong but not exclusive requirement for Cys. Constructs with an N-terminal Ala were not palmitoylated. However, an N-terminal Ser served as a substrate for Hhat, but not the Drosophila melanogaster ortholog Rasp, highlighting a critical difference between the mammalian and fly enzymes. These findings define residues and regions within Shh that are necessary for its recognition as a substrate for Hhat-mediated palmitoylation. Finally, we report the results of a bioinformatics screen to identify other potential Hhat substrates encoded in the human genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayshonda Y Hardy
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
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16
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Abstract
Methods to detect and characterize cellular protein myristoylation and palmitoylation are invaluable in cell biology, immunology, and virology. Recently, we developed ω-alkynyl fatty acid probes for monitoring myristoylation and palmitoylation of cellular proteins. This article describes a biochemical procedure for metabolic labeling of cells with ω-alkynyl fatty acids and click chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rami N Hannoush
- Department of Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA.
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17
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van Berkel SS, van Eldijk MB, van Hest JCM. Staudinger ligation as a method for bioconjugation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011; 50:8806-27. [PMID: 21887733 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201008102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In 1919 the German chemist Hermann Staudinger was the first to describe the reaction between an azide and a phosphine. It was not until recently, however, that Bertozzi and co-workers recognized the potential of this reaction as a method for bioconjugation and transformed it into the so-called Staudinger ligation. The bio-orthogonal character of both the azide and the phosphine functions has resulted in the Staudinger ligation finding numerous applications in various complex biological systems. For example, the Staudinger ligation has been utilized to label glycans, lipids, DNA, and proteins. Moreover, the Staudinger ligation has been used as a synthetic method to construct glycopeptides, microarrays, and functional biopolymers. In the emerging field of bio-orthogonal ligation strategies, the Staudinger ligation has set a high standard to which most of the new techniques are often compared. This Review summarizes recent developments and new applications of the Staudinger ligation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sander S van Berkel
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalseweg 135, NL-6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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18
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van Berkel SS, van Eldijk MB, van Hest JCM. Staudinger-Ligation als Methode zur Biokonjugation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201008102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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19
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Li L, Dong L, Xia L, Li T, Zhong H. Chemical and genetic probes for analysis of protein palmitoylation. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 879:1316-24. [PMID: 21163712 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2010] [Revised: 10/23/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Reversible protein palmitoylation is one of the most important posttranslational modifications that has been implicated in the regulation of protein signaling, trafficking, localizing and enzymatic activities in cells and tissues. In order to achieve a precise understanding of mechanisms and functions of protein palmitoylation as well as its roles in physiological processes and disease progression, it is necessary to develop techniques that can qualitatively and quantitatively monitor the dynamic protein palmitoylation in vivo and in vitro. This review will highlight recent advances in both chemical and genetic encoded probes that have been developed for accurate analysis of protein palmitoylation, including identification and quantification of acyl moieties and palmitoylated proteins, localization of amino acid residues on which acyl moieties are attached, and imaging of cellular distributions of palmitoylated proteins. The role of major techniques of fluorescence microscopy and mass spectrometry in facilitating the analysis of protein palmitoylation will also be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lun Li
- Key Laboratory of Pesticides and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei 430079, PR China
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Buglino JA, Resh MD. Identification of conserved regions and residues within Hedgehog acyltransferase critical for palmitoylation of Sonic Hedgehog. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11195. [PMID: 20585641 PMCID: PMC2890405 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 05/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a palmitoylated protein that plays key roles in mammalian development and human cancers. Palmitoylation of Shh is required for effective long and short range Shh-mediated signaling. Attachment of palmitate to Shh is catalyzed by Hedgehog acyltransferase (Hhat), a member of the membrane bound O-acyl transferase (MBOAT) family of multipass membrane proteins. The extremely hydrophobic composition of MBOAT proteins has limited their biochemical characterization. Except for mutagenesis of two conserved residues, there has been no structure-function analysis of Hhat, and the regions of the protein required for Shh palmitoylation are unknown. Methodology/Principal Findings Here we undertake a systematic approach to identify residues within Hhat that are required for protein stability and/or enzymatic activity. We also identify a second, novel MBOAT homology region (residues 196–234) that is required for Hhat activity. In total, ten deletion mutants and eleven point mutants were generated and analyzed. Truncations at the N- and C-termini of Hhat yielded inactive proteins with reduced stability. Four Hhat mutants with deletions within predicted loop regions and five point mutants retained stability but lost palmitoylation activity. We purified two point mutants, W378A and H379A, with defective Hhat activity. Kinetic analyses revealed alterations in apparent Km and Vmax for Shh and/or palmitoyl CoA, changes that likely explain the catalytic defects observed for these mutants. Conclusions/Significance This study has pinpointed specific regions and multiple residues that regulate Hhat stability and catalysis. Our findings should be applicable to other MBOAT proteins that mediate lipid modification of Wnt proteins and ghrelin, and should serve as a model for understanding how secreted morphogens are modified by palmitoyl acyltransferases.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A. Buglino
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marilyn D. Resh
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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22
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Hannoush RN, Arenas-Ramirez N. Imaging the lipidome: omega-alkynyl fatty acids for detection and cellular visualization of lipid-modified proteins. ACS Chem Biol 2009; 4:581-7. [PMID: 19505150 DOI: 10.1021/cb900085z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fatty acylation or lipid modification of proteins controls their cellular activation and diverse roles in physiology. It mediates protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions and plays an important role in regulating cellular signaling pathways. Currently, there is need for visualizing lipid modifications of proteins in cells. Herein we report novel chemical probes based on omega-alkynyl fatty acids for biochemical detection and cellular imaging of lipid-modified proteins. Our study shows that omega-alkynyl fatty acids of varying chain length are metabolically incorporated onto cellular proteins. Using fluorescence imaging, we describe the subcellular distribution of lipid-modified proteins across a panel of different mammalian cell lines and during cell division. Our results demonstrate that this methodology is a useful diagnostic tool for analyzing the lipid content of cellular proteins and for studying the dynamic behavior of lipid-modified proteins in various disease or physiological states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rami N. Hannoush
- Department of Protein Engineering, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Natalia Arenas-Ramirez
- Department of Protein Engineering, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
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23
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Charron G, Zhang MM, Yount JS, Wilson J, Raghavan AS, Shamir E, Hang HC. Robust fluorescent detection of protein fatty-acylation with chemical reporters. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:4967-75. [PMID: 19281244 DOI: 10.1021/ja810122f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fatty-acylation of proteins in eukaryotes is associated with many fundamental cellular processes but has been challenging to study due to limited tools for rapid and robust detection of protein fatty-acylation in cells. The development of azido-fatty acids enabled the nonradioactive detection of fatty-acylated proteins in mammalian cells using the Staudinger ligation and biotinylated phosphine reagents. However, the visualization of protein fatty-acylation with streptavidin blotting is highly variable and not ideal for robust detection of fatty-acylated proteins. Here we report the development of alkynyl-fatty acid chemical reporters and improved bioorthogonal labeling conditions using the Cu(I)-catalyzed Huisgen [3 + 2] cycloaddition that enables specific and sensitive fluorescence detection of fatty-acylated proteins in mammalian cells. These improvements allow the rapid and robust biochemical analysis of fatty-acylated proteins expressed at endogenous levels in mammalian cells by in-gel fluorescence scanning. In addition, alkynyl-fatty acid chemical reporters enable the visualization of fatty-acylated proteins in cells by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The ability to rapidly visualize protein fatty-acylation in cells using fluorescence detection methods therefore provides new opportunities to interrogate the functions and regulatory mechanisms of fatty-acylated proteins in physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Charron
- The Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10065, USA
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24
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Abstract
Proteins can be acylated with a variety of fatty acids attached by different covalent bonds, influencing, among other things, their function and intracellular localization. This unit describes methods to analyze protein acylation, both levels of acylation and also the identification of the fatty acid and the type of bond present in the protein of interest. Protocols are provided for metabolic labeling of proteins with tritiated fatty acids, for exploitation of the differential sensitivity to cleavage of different types of bonds, in order to distinguish between them, and for thin-layer chromatography to separate and identify the fatty acids associated with proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Zeidman
- Molecular Medicine, National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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25
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Abstract
Palmitoylated proteins have been implicated in several disease states including Huntington's, cardiovascular, T-cell mediated immune diseases, and cancer. To proceed with drug discovery efforts in this area, it is necessary to: identify the target enzymes, establish efficient assays for palmitoylation, and conduct high-throughput screening to identify inhibitors. The primary objectives of this review are to examine the types of assays used to study protein palmitoylation and to discuss the known inhibitors of palmitoylation. Six main palmitoylation assays are currently in use. Four assays, radiolabeled palmitate incorporation, fatty acyl exchange chemistry, MALDI-TOF MS and azido-fatty acid labeling are useful in the identification of palmitoylated proteins and palmitoyl acyltransferase (PAT) enzymes. Two other methods, the in vitro palmitoylation (IVP) assay and a cell-based peptide palmitoylation assay, are useful in the identification of PAT enzymes and are more amenable to screening for inhibitors of palmitoylation. To date, two general types of palmitoylation inhibitors have been identified. Lipid-based palmitoylation inhibitors broadly inhibit the palmitoylation of proteins; however, the mechanism of action of these compounds is unknown, and each also has effects on fatty acid biosynthesis. Conversely, several non-lipid palmitoylation inhibitors have been shown to selectively inhibit the palmitoylation of different PAT recognition motifs. The selective nature of these compounds suggests that they may act as protein substrate competitors, and may produce fewer non-specific effects. Therefore, these molecules may serve as lead compounds for the further development of selective inhibitors of palmitoylation, which may lead to new therapeutics for cancer and other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremiah M Draper
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425-1400, USA
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Buglino JA, Resh MD. Hhat is a palmitoylacyltransferase with specificity for N-palmitoylation of Sonic Hedgehog. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:22076-88. [PMID: 18534984 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m803901200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Palmitoylation of Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) is critical for effective long- and short-range signaling. Genetic screens uncovered a potential palmitoylacyltransferase (PAT) for Shh, Hhat, but the molecular mechanism of Shh palmitoylation remains unclear. Here, we have developed and exploited an in vitro Shh palmitoylation assay to purify Hhat to homogeneity. We provide direct biochemical evidence that Hhat is a PAT with specificity for attaching palmitate via amide linkage to the N-terminal cysteine of Shh. Other palmitoylated proteins (e.g. PSD95 and Wnt) are not substrates for Hhat, and Porcupine, a putative Wnt PAT, does not palmitoylate Shh. Neither autocleavage nor cholesterol modification is required for Shh palmitoylation. Both the Shh precursor and mature protein are N-palmitoylated by Hhat, and the reaction occurs during passage through the secretory pathway. This study establishes Hhat as a bona fide Shh PAT and serves as a model for understanding how secreted morphogens are modified by distinct PATs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Buglino
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
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27
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Abstract
Covalent attachment of radiolabeled fatty acids (e.g., [(3)H]myristate or palmitate) is an alternative method for labeling proteins. This unit contains methods for biosynthetic labeling with fatty acids, analysis of the fatty acid linkage with protein, analysis of total protein-bound fatty acid level in cell extracts, and analysis of the identity of the bound fatty acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Jackson
- National Institute For Medical Research, London, United Kingdom
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Resh MD. Use of analogs and inhibitors to study the functional significance of protein palmitoylation. Methods 2006; 40:191-7. [PMID: 17012032 PMCID: PMC1712572 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2006.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2006] [Accepted: 04/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Covalent attachment of palmitate to proteins is a post-translational modification that exerts diverse effects on protein localization and function. The three key technical approaches required for an investigator to determine the role of palmitoylation of your favorite palmitoylated protein (YFPP) are methods to: (1) detect YFPP palmitoylation; (2) alter or inhibit palmitoylation of YFPP; (3) determine the functional significance of altered YFPP palmitoylation. Here, I describe experimental methods to address these three issues. Both radioactive (radiolabeling with [(3)H]palmitate or (125)I-IC16 palmitate) and non-radioactive (chemical labeling and mass spectrometry) methods to detect palmitoylated proteins are presented. Next, techniques to inhibit protein palmitoylation are described. These include site specific mutagenesis, and treatment of cells with inhibitors of protein palmitoylation, including 2-bromopalmitate, cerulenin, and tunicamycin. Alternative methods to replace palmitate with other fatty acids are also presented. Finally, general approaches to determining the effect of altered palmitoylation status on YFPP association with membranes and lipid rafts, as well as signal transduction, are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn D Resh
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Ave, Box 143, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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29
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Abstract
Palmitate, a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, is attached to more than 100 proteins. Modification of proteins by palmitate has pleiotropic effects on protein function. Palmitoylation can influence membrane binding and membrane targeting of the modified proteins. In particular, many palmitoylated proteins concentrate in lipid rafts, and enrichment in rafts is required for efficient signal transduction. This Review focuses on the multiple effects of palmitoylation on the localization and function of ligands, receptors, and intracellular signaling proteins. Palmitoylation regulates the trafficking and function of transmembrane proteins such as ion channels, neurotransmitter receptors, heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptors, and integrins. In addition, immune receptor signaling relies on protein palmitoylation at many levels, including palmitoylated co-receptors, Src family kinases, and adaptor or scaffolding proteins. The localization and signaling capacities of Ras and G proteins are modulated by dynamic protein palmitoylation. Cycles of palmitoylation and depalmitoylation allow H-Ras and G protein alpha subunits to reversibly bind to and signal from different intracellular cell membranes. Moreover, secreted ligands such as Hedgehog, Wingless, and Spitz use palmitoylation to regulate the extent of long- or short-range signaling. Finally, palmitoylation can alter signaling protein function by direct effects on enzymatic activity and substrate specificity. The identification of the palmitoyl acyltransferases has provided new insights into the biochemistry of this posttranslational process and permitted new substrates to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn D Resh
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Box 143, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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30
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Cherukuri A, Carter RH, Brooks S, Bornmann W, Finn R, Dowd CS, Pierce SK. B cell signaling is regulated by induced palmitoylation of CD81. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:31973-82. [PMID: 15161911 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m404410200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Signaling through the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) is amplified and prolonged by coligation of the BCR to the CD19/CD21/CD81 coreceptor complex. Coligation is induced during immune responses by the simultaneous binding of complement-tagged antigens to the complement receptor, CD21, and to the BCR. Enhanced signaling is due in part to the ability of the CD19/CD21/CD81 complex to stabilize the BCR in sphingolipid- and cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains termed lipid rafts. The tetraspanin CD81 is essential for the raft-stabilizing function of the coreceptor. Here we show that coligation of the BCR and the CD19/CD21/CD81 complex leads to selective, rapid, and reversible palmitoylation of CD81 and that palmitoylation is necessary for the raft stabilizing function of the CD19/CD21/CD81 complex. Inducible palmitoylation may represent a novel mechanism by which tetraspanins function to facilitate lipid raft-dependent receptor signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Cherukuri
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
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31
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Abstract
Covalent attachment of lipophilic moieties to proteins influences interaction with membranes and membrane microdomains, as well as signal transduction. The most common forms of fatty acylation include modification of the N-terminal glycine of proteins by N-myristoylation and/or attachment of palmitate to internal cysteine residues. Protein prenylation involves attachment of farnesyl or geranylgeranyl moieties via thio-ether linkage to cysteine residues at or near the C-terminus. Attachment of each of these lipophilic groups is catalyzed by a distinct enzyme or set of enzymes: N-myristoyl transferase for N-myristoylation, palmitoyl acyl transferases for palmitoylation, and farnesyl or geranylgeranyl transferases for prenylation. The distinct nature of the lipid modification determines the strength of membrane interaction of the modified protein as well as the specificity of membrane targeting. Clusters of basic residues can also synergize with the lipophilic group to promote membrane binding and targeting. The final destination of the modified protein is influenced by multiple factors, including the localization of the modifying enzymes, protein/protein interactions, and the lipid composition of the acceptor membrane. In particular, much interest has been focused on the ability of fatty acylated proteins to preferentially partition into membrane rafts, subdomains of the plasma membrane that are enriched in cholesterol and glycosphingolipids. Lipid raft localization is necessary for efficient signal transduction in a wide variety of systems, including signaling by T and B cell receptors, Ras, and growth factor receptors. However, certain membrane subdomains, such as caveolae, can serve as reservoirs for inactive signaling proteins. Heterogeneity in the types of membrane subdomains, as well as in the types of lipophilic groups that are attached to proteins, provide an additional level of complexity in the regulation of signaling by membrane bound proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn D Resh
- Member and Professor, Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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32
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Gagnoux-Palacios L, Dans M, van't Hof W, Mariotti A, Pepe A, Meneguzzi G, Resh MD, Giancotti FG. Compartmentalization of integrin alpha6beta4 signaling in lipid rafts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003; 162:1189-96. [PMID: 14517202 PMCID: PMC2173954 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200305006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Integrin α6β4 signaling proceeds through Src family kinase (SFK)–mediated phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic tail of β4, recruitment of Shc, and activation of Ras and phosphoinositide-3 kinase. Upon cessation of signaling, α6β4 mediates assembly of hemidesmosomes. Here, we report that part of α6β4 is incorporated in lipid rafts. Metabolic labeling in combination with mutagenesis indicates that one or more cysteine in the membrane-proximal segment of β4 tail is palmitoylated. Mutation of these cysteines suppresses incorporation of α6β4 in lipid rafts, but does not affect α6β4-mediated adhesion or assembly of hemidesmosomes. The fraction of α6β4 localized to rafts associates with a palmitoylated SFK, whereas the remainder does not. Ligation of palmitoylation-defective α6β4 does not activate SFK signaling to extracellular signal–regulated kinase and fails to promote keratinocyte proliferation in response to EGF. Thus, compartmentalization in lipid rafts is necessary to couple the α6β4 integrin to a palmitoylated SFK and promote EGF-dependent mitogenesis.
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Hawash IY, Hu XE, Adal A, Cassady JM, Geahlen RL, Harrison ML. The oxygen-substituted palmitic acid analogue, 13-oxypalmitic acid, inhibits Lck localization to lipid rafts and T cell signaling. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2002; 1589:140-50. [PMID: 12007789 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4889(02)00165-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Palmitoylation of cysteines 3 and 5 is necessary for targeting Lck to lipid rafts and is needed for Lck function in T cell receptor (TCR) signaling. Point mutations of cysteines 3 and 5 result in a form of Lck that fails to associate with the plasma membrane, which limits the usefulness of this genetic approach to address the role of palmitoylation in the distribution of Lck within the plasma membrane. To circumvent this problem, we sought to identify a palmitic acid analogue that would enable plasma membrane association of Lck, but not facilitate its localization within lipid rafts. Here we examined the effects of the heteroatom-substituted analogue of palmitic acid, 13-oxypalmitic acid (13-OP), on Lck subcellular localization and function. 13-OP is similar in chain length to palmitic acid, but possesses reduced hydrophobicity. We found that treatment of cells with 13-OP inhibited incorporation of omega-[(125)I]iodopalmitate into Lck. 13-OP inhibited localization of Lck to lipid rafts without altering its membrane localization. Consistent with the dissociation of Lck from rafts, treatment with 13-OP abolished Lck association with the GPI-anchored protein, CD48, but not the transmembrane glycoprotein CD4. Jurkat T cells treated with 13-OP showed marked reduction in tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase upon TCR stimulation. In conclusion, the less hydrophobic analogue of palmitate, 13-OP, alters the normal acylation of Lck that provides Lck with the necessary hydrophobicity and tight packing order required for inclusion in lipid rafts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Y Hawash
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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34
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Jackson CS, Magee AI. Analysis of protein acylation. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN PROTEIN SCIENCE 2001; Chapter 14:Unit14.2. [PMID: 18429122 DOI: 10.1002/0471140864.ps1402s05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Protein acylation is the covalent attachment of fatty acids to a protein; the most commonly added fatty acids are myristate (14:0) and palmitate (16:0). In this unit, protocols describe the use of radiolabeled fatty acids to label eukaryotic cells in vitro. The radiolabeled material produced can then be analyzed by the various methods described here: determination of the type of fatty acid linkage, checking for interconversion by determining the nature of the protein-bound label, and identification of the protein-bound fatty acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Jackson
- National Institute for Medical Research, London, United Kingdom
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35
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van't Hof W, Resh MD. Targeting proteins to plasma membrane and membrane microdomains by N-terminal myristoylation and palmitoylation. Methods Enzymol 2001; 327:317-30. [PMID: 11044994 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(00)27287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W van't Hof
- Department of Medicine/Institute for Genetic Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10021, USA
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36
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Mishra PK, Drueckhammer DG. Coenzyme A Analogues and Derivatives: Synthesis and Applications as Mechanistic Probes of Coenzyme A Ester-Utilizing Enzymes. Chem Rev 2000; 100:3283-3310. [PMID: 11777425 DOI: 10.1021/cr990010m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pranab K. Mishra
- Department of Chemistry, State University at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York 11794
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37
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Webb Y, Hermida-Matsumoto L, Resh MD. Inhibition of protein palmitoylation, raft localization, and T cell signaling by 2-bromopalmitate and polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:261-70. [PMID: 10617614 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.1.261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of the Src family kinases Fyn and Lck to participate in signaling through the T cell receptor is critically dependent on their dual fatty acylation with myristate and palmitate. Here we identify a palmitate analog, 2-bromopalmitate, that effectively blocks Fyn fatty acylation in general and palmitoylation in particular. Treatment of COS-1 cells with 2-bromopalmitate blocked myristoylation and palmitoylation of Fyn and inhibited membrane binding and localization of Fyn to detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs). In Jurkat T cells, 2-bromopalmitate blocked localization of the endogenous palmitoylated proteins Fyn, Lck, and LAT to DRMs. This resulted in impaired signaling through the T cell receptor as evidenced by reductions in tyrosine phosphorylation, calcium release, and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase. We also examined the ability of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to inhibit protein fatty acylation. PUFAs have been reported to inhibit T cell signaling by excluding Src family kinases from DRMs. Here we show that the PUFAs arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid inhibit Fyn palmitoylation and consequently block Fyn localization to DRMs. We propose that inhibition of protein palmitoylation represents a novel mechanism by which PUFAs exert their immunosuppressive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Webb
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA
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Locigno R, Antoine N, Bours V, Daukandt M, Heinen E, Castronovo V. TNP-470, a potent angiogenesis inhibitor, amplifies human T lymphocyte activation through an induction of nuclear factor-kappaB, nuclear factor-AT, and activation protein-1 transcription factors. J Transl Med 2000; 80:13-21. [PMID: 10652998 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3780003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
TNP-470, an angiogenesis inhibitor derived from fumagillin, is foreseen as a promising anti-cancer drug. Its effectiveness to restrain tumor growth and its lack of major side effects have been demonstrated in several animal models and have led the drug to reach phase III clinical trials. Beside its antiangiogenesis activities, TNP-470 exhibits several effects on the immune system. We had shown previously that TNP-470 stimulated B lymphocyte proliferation through an action on T cells. In this study, we examined the cellular and molecular modifications induced by TNP-470 in normal human T lymphocytes. Transmission electron microscopic examination of PHA/TNP-470-treated T cells revealed significant morphologic modifications when compared with PHA-treated control T cells. TNP-470 induced indeed an important and significant increase of the nuclear size as well as major nuclear chromatin decondensation. This observation indicated that TNP-470 amplified T-cell activation and led us to investigate its effects on the activation of transcription factors involved in T-cell activation. Using electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we have demonstrated that TNP-470 amplifies and extends the DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor-AT, nuclear factor-KB, and activation protein-1 in T cells. Furthermore, the angioinhibin significantly increased the secretion of IL-2 and IL-4. Our data demonstrate that TNP-470 amplifies the activation of T cells. This effect, whose molecular mechanisms remain to be elucidated, has to be taken into account in the assessment of the antitumor effect of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Locigno
- Metastasis Research Laboratory, University of Liège, Belgium
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39
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Sleeman MW, Donegan NP, Heller-Harrison R, Lane WS, Czech MP. Association of acyl-CoA synthetase-1 with GLUT4-containing vesicles. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:3132-5. [PMID: 9452420 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.6.3132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
GLUT4, the glucose transporter present in insulin-sensitive tissues, resides in intracellular vesicular structures and translocates to the cell surface in response to insulin. In an attempt to identify proteins present in these structures, GLUT4-enriched vesicles prepared from rat adipocytes treated with or without insulin were prepared by sucrose velocity gradient centrifugation and immunoadsorbed with anti-GLUT4 antibody. We report here the sequence identification by high performance liquid chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry of a p75 protein band, long chain acyl-CoA synthetase-1, specifically present in immunoadsorbed GLUT4-containing vesicles but not in vesicles adsorbed by nonimmune serum. Acyl-CoA synthetase activity detected in GLUT4-enriched vesicles prepared by gradient centrifugation from insulin-treated adipocytes was decreased to about the same extent as GLUT4 protein. Additionally, immunoadsorbed GLUT4 vesicles were found to catalyze palmitoylation of proteins when incubated with labeled palmitate, a pathway that requires palmitate esterification with CoA. These data indicate that the insulin-sensitive membrane compartment that sequesters GLUT4 in fat cells contains long chain acyl-CoA synthetase-1 and its product fatty acyl-CoA, shown previously to be required for budding and fusion in membrane trafficking processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Sleeman
- Program in Molecular Medicine and the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical Center, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
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40
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Sin N, Meng L, Wang MQ, Wen JJ, Bornmann WG, Crews CM. The anti-angiogenic agent fumagillin covalently binds and inhibits the methionine aminopeptidase, MetAP-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:6099-103. [PMID: 9177176 PMCID: PMC21008 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.12.6099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 474] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The inhibition of new blood vessel formation (angiogenesis) is an effective means of limiting both the size and metastasis of solid tumors. The leading anti-angiogenic compound, TNP-470, has proven to be effective in in vitro and in animal model studies, and is currently being tested in phase III antitumor clinical trials. Despite many detailed pharmacological studies, little is known of the molecular mode of action of TNP-470. Using a derivative of the TNP-470 parent compound, the fungal metabolite, fumagillin, we have purified a mammalian protein that is selectively and covalently bound by this natural product. This fumagillin binding protein was found to be a metalloprotease, methionine aminopeptidase (MetAP-2), that is highly conserved between human and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In the absence of MetAP-1, a distantly related methionine aminopeptidase, MetAP-2 function is essential for vegetative growth in yeast. We demonstrate that fumagillin selectively inhibits the S. cerevisiae MetAP-2 protein in vivo. The binding is highly specific as judged by the failure of fumagillin to inhibit MetAP-1 in vivo. Hence, these results identify MetAP-2 as an important target of study in the analysis of the potent biological activities of fumagillin.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Sin
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, 219 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8103, USA
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van't Hof W, Resh MD. Rapid plasma membrane anchoring of newly synthesized p59fyn: selective requirement for NH2-terminal myristoylation and palmitoylation at cysteine-3. J Cell Biol 1997; 136:1023-35. [PMID: 9060467 PMCID: PMC2132482 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.136.5.1023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The trafficking of Src family proteins after biosynthesis is poorly defined. Here we studied the role of dual fatty acylation with myristate and palmitate in biosynthetic transport of p59fyn. Metabolic labeling of transfected COS or NIH 3T3 cells with [35S]methionine followed by analysis of cytosolic and total membrane fractions showed that Fyn became membrane bound within 5 min after biosynthesis. Newly synthesized Src, however, accumulated in the membranes between 20-60 min. Northern blotting detected Fyn mRNA specifically in soluble polyribosomes and soluble Fyn protein was only detected shortly (1-2 min) after radiolabeling. Use of chimeric Fyn and Src constructs showed that rapid membrane targeting was mediated by the myristoylated NH2-terminal sequence of Fyn and that a cysteine at position 3, but not 6, was essential. Examination of G alpha(o)-, G alpha(s)-, or GAP43-Fyn fusion constructs indicated that rapid membrane anchoring is exclusively conferred by the combination of N-myristoylation plus palmitoylation of cysteine-3. Density gradient analysis colocalized newly synthesized Fyn with plasma membranes. Interestingly, a 10-20-min lag phase was observed between plasma membrane binding and the acquisition of non-ionic detergent insolubility. We propose a model in which synthesis and myristoylation of Fyn occurs on soluble ribosomes, followed by rapid palmitoylation and plasma membrane anchoring, and a slower partitioning into detergent-insoluble membrane subdomains. These results serve to define a novel trafficking pathway for Src family proteins that are regulated by dual fatty acylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- W van't Hof
- Cell Biology and Genetics Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Parang K, Knaus EE, Wiebe LI, Sardari S, Daneshtalab M, Csizmadia F. Synthesis and antifungal activities of myristic acid analogs. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 1996; 329:475-82. [PMID: 8997896 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.19963291102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Myristic acid analogs that are putative inhibitors of N-myristoyl-transferase were tested in vitro for activity against yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans) and filamentous fungi (Aspergillus niger). Several (+/-)-2-halotetradecanoic acids including (+/-)-2-bromotetradecanoic acid (14c) exhibited potent activity against C. albicans (MIC = 39 microM), C. neoformans (MIC = 20 microM), S. cerevisiae (MIC = 10 microM), and A. niger (MIC < 42 microM) in RPMI 1640 media. Improved synthetic methods have been developed for the synthesis of 12-fluorododecanoic acid (12a) and 12-chlorododecanoic acid (12c). Three novel fatty acids, 12-chloro-4-oxadodecanoic acid (8a), 12-phenoxydodecanoic acid (12i), and 11-(4-iodophenoxy)-undecanoic acid (13d) were also synthesized and tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Parang
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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Berthiaume L, Resh MD. Biochemical characterization of a palmitoyl acyltransferase activity that palmitoylates myristoylated proteins. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:22399-405. [PMID: 7673226 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.38.22399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Dynamic regulation of signal transduction by reversible palmitoylation-depalmitoylation cycles has been recently described. However, further understanding of fatty acylation reactions has been hampered by our lack of knowledge about the specific transferases and thioesterases involved. Here, we describe an assay for the palmitoyl acyltransferase (PAT) that palmitoylates "myrGlyCys" containing members of the Src family of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs). Since N-myristoylation of Fyn PTK, a member of the Src family, has been shown to be a prerequisite for palmitolylation, a new single plasmid vector that allows overexpression of myristoylated Fyn substrate in Escherichia coli was developed. Purified myristoylated protein substrates were incubated with [125I]iodopalmitoyl CoA, a palmitoyl CoA analog, in the presence of bovine brain lysates. Transfer of radiolabel to the Fyn substrate was detected by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. This assay was used to partially purify and characterize PAT activity from bovine brain. Here, we demonstrate that PAT is a membrane-bound enzyme, which palmitoylates myristoylated Fyn substrates containing a cysteine residue in position three. The PAT activity attached palmitate to Fyn proteins via a thioester linkage and exhibited a fatty acyl CoA preference for long chain fatty acids. It is likely that palmitoylation of Fyn and other Src family members by PAT regulates PTK localization and signaling functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Berthiaume
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- L Berthiaume
- Program in Cell Biology and Genetics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA
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Johnson D, Knoll L, Rowley N, Gordon J. Genetic analysis of the role of Saccharomyces cerevisiae acyl-CoA synthetase genes in regulating protein N-myristoylation. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)32414-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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Dual myristylation and palmitylation of Src family member p59fyn affects subcellular localization. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)89447-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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47
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Berthiaume L, Deichaite I, Peseckis S, Resh M. Regulation of enzymatic activity by active site fatty acylation. A new role for long chain fatty acid acylation of proteins. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)37399-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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48
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Lu T, Li Q, Katoh A, Hernandez J, Duffin K, Jackson-Machelski E, Knoll L, Gokel G, Gordon J. The substrate specificity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae myristoyl-CoA: protein N-myristoyltransferase. Polar probes of the enzyme's myristoyl-CoA recognition site. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)37693-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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49
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Abstract
Modification of proteins by both lipophilic and hydrophilic moieties is widely documented. Here we present recent insights into how protein targeting is influenced by protein modification, with particular emphasis on dynamic regulation by fatty acylation and phosphorylation of proteins.
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Novel use of an iodo-myristyl-CoA analog identifies a semialdehyde dehydrogenase in bovine liver. J Biol Chem 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)86919-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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