Limulus hemocyte transglutaminase. Its purification and characterization, and identification of the intracellular substrates

Biomolecules of the Horseshoe Crab’s Hemolymph: Components of an Ancient Defensive Mechanism and Its Impact on the Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Industry

Without adaptive immunity, invertebrates have evolved innate immune systems that react to antigens on the surfaces of pathogens. These defense mechanisms are included in horseshoe crab hemocytes’ cellular responses to pathogens. Secretory granules, large (L) and small (S), are found on hemocytes. Once the invasion of pathogens is present, these granules release their contents through exocytosis. Recent data in biochemistry and immunology on the granular constituents of granule-specific proteins are stored in large and small granules which are involved in the cell-mediated immune response. L-granules contain most clotting proteins, which are necessary for hemolymph coagulation. They also include tachylectins; protease inhibitors, such as cystatin and serpins; and anti-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) factors, which bind to LPS and agglutinate bacteria. Big defensin, tachycitin, tachystatin, and tachyplesins are some of the essential cysteine-rich proteins in S-granules. These granules also contain tachycitin and tachystatins, which can agglutinate bacteria. These proteins in granules and hemolymph act synergistically to fight infections. These biomolecules are antimicrobial and antibacterial, enabling them to be drug resistant. This review is aimed at explaining the biomolecules identified in the horseshoe crab’s hemolymph and their application scopes in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology sectors.

New insights into the hemolymph coagulation cascade of horseshoe crabs initiated by autocatalytic activation of a lipopolysaccharide-sensitive zymogen

The concept of a chain reaction of proteolytic activation of multiple protease zymogens was first proposed to explain the blood clotting system in mammals as an enzyme cascade. In multicellular organisms, similar enzyme cascades are widely present in signal transduction and amplification systems. The initiation step of the blood coagulation cascade often consists of autocatalytic activation of the corresponding zymogens located on the surfaces of host- or foreign-derived substances at injured sites. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the concept of autocatalytic activation remains speculative. In this review, we will focus on the autocatalytic activation of prochelicerase C on the surface of lipopolysaccharide as a potential initiator of hemolymph coagulation in horseshoe crabs. Prochelicerase C is presumed to have evolved from a common complement factor in Chelicerata; thus, evolutionary insights into the hemolymph coagulation and complement systems in horseshoe crabs will also be discussed.

Reactive oxygen species generated by a heat shock protein (Hsp) inducing product contributes to Hsp70 production and Hsp70-mediated protective immunity in Artemia franciscana against pathogenic vibrios

The cytoprotective role of heat shock protein (Hsp70) described in a variety of animal disease models, including vibriosis in farmed aquatic animals, suggests that new protective strategies relying upon the use of compounds that selectively turn on Hsp genes could be developed. The product Tex-OE® (hereafter referred to as Hspi), an extract from the skin of the prickly pear fruit, Opuntia ficus indica, was previously shown to trigger Hsp70 synthesis in a non-stressful situation in a variety of animals, including in a gnotobiotically (germ-free) cultured brine shrimp Artemia franciscana model system. This model system offers great potential for carrying out high-throughput, live-animal screens of compounds that have health benefit effects. By using this model system, we aimed to disclose the underlying cause behind the induction of Hsp70 by Hspi in the shrimp host, and to determine whether the product affects the shrimp in inducing resistance towards pathogenic vibrios. We provide unequivocal evidences indicating that during the pretreatment period with Hspi, there is an initial release of reactive oxygen species (hydrogen peroxide and/or superoxide anion), generated by the added product, in the rearing water and associated with the host. The reactive molecules generated are the triggering factors responsible for causing Hsp70 induction within Artemia. We have also shown that Hspi acts prophylactically at an optimum dose regimen to confer protection against pathogenic vibrios. This salutary effect was associated with upregulation of two important immune genes, prophenoloxidase and transglutaminase of the innate immune system. These findings suggest that inducers of stress protein (e.g. Hsp70) are potentially important modulator of immune responses and might be exploited to confer protection to cultured shrimp against Vibrio infection.

Identification and cloning of the second type transglutaminase from Litopenaeus vannamei, and its transcription following pathogen infection and in relation to the haemolymph coagulation

Complementary (c)DNA encoding transglutaminaseII (TGII) messenger (m)RNA of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, was cloned from haemocytes by a reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) using oligonucleotide primers based on the TG sequence of the horseshoe crab, Tachypleus tridentatus (accession no.: BAA02134), tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon (AAV49005; AAO33455), kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus (BAD36808) and Pacifastacus leniusculus (AAK69205) TG. The 2405-bp cDNA contained an open reading frame (ORF) of 2292 bp, a 31-bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), and an 82-bp 3'-UTR containing a poly A tail. The molecular mass of the deduced amino acid (aa) sequence (764 aa) was 85.9 kDa with an estimated pI of 5.32. The L. vannamei TGII (abbreviated LvTGII) contains a typical TG-like homologue, two putative integrin binding motif (RGD and KGD), and five calcium-binding sites; three catalytic triad is present as in arthropod TG. Sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis revealed that shrimp TG can be separated into two groups, STGI and STGII, and LvTGII is more closely related to STGII than to STGI. LvTGII mRNA was detected in all tested tissues of L. vannamei, and was highly expressed in haemocytes. The haemocytes of L. vannamei injected with Vibrio alginolyticus showed a significant increase of LvTGI and LvTGII mRNA expression at 6 h followed by a notable decrease at 24 h in LvTGI and a continually increase in LvTGII indicating a complementary effect, which implied that both LvTGs involved in the immune response of shrimp, and LvTGII was more important in the later defense response. The gene silencing of LvTGII in shrimp significantly decreased LvTGII expression and TG activity of haemocytes, and significantly increased clotting time of haemolymph, suggests that the cloned LvTGII is a clotting enzyme involved in haemolymph coagulation of L. vannamei. In conclusion, the cloned LvTGII is a clotting enzyme involved in coagulation of haemolymp and immune response of white shrimp, L. vannamei.

Identification and cloning of a transglutaminase from giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, and its transcription during pathogen infection and moulting

Complementary (c)DNA encoding transglutaminase (TG) messenger (m)RNA of the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, was cloned from haemocytes by a reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) using oligonucleotide primers based on the TG sequence of the horseshoe crab, Tachypleus tridentatus; tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon; kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus; and crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus. The 2722-bp cDNA contained an open reading frame (ORF) of 2334 bp, a 72-bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), and a 316-bp 3'-UTR containing a stop codon and a poly A tail. The molecular mass of the deduced amino acid (aa) sequence (778 aa) was 86.67 kDa with an estimated pI of 5.4. The M. rosenbergii TG (abbreviated MrTG, accession no.: JF309296) contains a typical transglutaminase-like homologue, two putative integrin-binding motifs (RGD), ten glycosylation sites, and four calcium-binding sites; a catalytic triad is present as in arthropod TGs. Sequence comparison and a phylogenetic analysis revealed that shrimp TG can be separated into three subgroups, penaeid TG1, freshwater crustacean TG2 and marine crustacean TG2, and MrTG was more closely related to TG2 than to TG1. MrTG mRNA and TG activities were detected in all tested tissues of M. rosenbergii, with MrTG mainly being synthesised by haemocytes. There was a negative correlation between clotting time of haemolymph, and MrTG expression and TG activity of haemocytes in prawn injected with Lactococcus garvieae. The pattern of MrTG mRNA expression and TG activity in haemocytes exhibited a contrary tendency with clotting time of haemolymph during the moult stages. Those results indicate that cloned MrTG is involved in the defence response, and is probably the major functional TG for haemolymph coagulation in M. rosenbergii.

cDNA cloning, identification, tissue localisation, and transcription profile of a transglutaminase from white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, after infection by Vibrio alginolyticus

Complementary (c)DNA encoding transglutaminase (TG) messenger (m)RNA of white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, was cloned from haemocytes by a reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) using oligonucleotide primers based on the TG sequence of the horseshoe crab, Tachypleus tridentatus (accession no.: BAA02134); tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon (AAL78166); and Pacifastacus leniusculus (AF336805). The 2638-bp cDNA contained an open reading frame (ORF) of 2172 bp, a 55-bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), and a 411-bp 3'-UTR containing a poly A tail. The molecular mass of the deduced amino acid (aa) sequence (757 aa) was 84.9 kDa with an estimated pI of 5.2. The L. vannamei TG (abbreviated LvTG) contains a typical transglutaminase-like homologue, a putative integrin-binding motif (RGD), and four calcium-binding sites; a catalytic triad is present as in arthropod TG. Sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis revealed that shrimp TG can be separated into two subgroups, STGS1 and STGS2, and LvTG is more closely related to STGS1 than to STGS2. LvTG mRNA and TG activities were detected in all tested tissues of L. vannamei, with LvTG mainly being synthesised in haemocytes. However, the pattern of LvTG mRNA expression was not directly correlated with TG activity. The haemocytes of L. vannamei injected with Vibrio alginolyticus showed a significant decrease of TG activity at 3 h and a significant increase of LvTG mRNA expression at 6 h followed by a notable decrease from 12 to 24 h, which indicated that cloned LvTG was involved in the immune response of shrimp. The results also imply that more than one type of TG may be involved in the defense response in L. vannamei.

A Cysteine-rich Protein from an Arthropod Stabilizes Clotting Mesh and Immobilizes Bacteria at Injury Sites

Hemolymph coagulation in arthropods plays key roles in host defense, including sealing wounds to staunch bleeding and immobilizing invading microorganisms. We have previously reported that horseshoe crab transglutaminase (TGase) promotes cross-linking of a clotting protein (coagulin) with hemocyte-derived proteins (proxins), resulting in the formation of stable coagulin fibrils. Here we show that TGase also cross-links proxins to another hemocyte-derived protein named stablin. Stablin is a cysteine-rich protein of 131 residues. Surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed the specific interaction of stablin with proxin-1 at K(d) = 4.0 x 10(-9) m. Stablin was predominantly localized in the large granules of hemocytes and secreted by lipopolysaccharide-induced exocytosis. Interestingly, stablin bound to chitin at K(d) = 1.5 x 10(-8) m, as determined by using a quartz-crystal microbalance. Stablin also interacted with lipopolysaccharides and lipoteichoic acids and exhibited bacterial agglutinating activity against Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Immunostaining showed that stablin is co-localized with coagulin in the clotting fibrils that effectively trap bacteria. Moreover, an anti-stablin antibody strongly inhibited the proper formation of the clotting fibrils. These data suggest that stablin promotes the formation of the clotting mesh and the immobilization of invading microbes at injury sites. In arthropods, the TGase-mediated cross-linking may play an important role in the initial stage of host defense, wound closure, and healing, as in the case of mammals.

Structure-function relationships of tachyplesins and their analogues

Haemocytes of the horseshoe crab (Limulus) contain a new family of arthropodous peptide antibiotics, termed the tachyplesin family. These cationic peptides are composed of 17-18 amino acid residues with a C-terminal arginine alpha-amide. Tachyplesin I takes on a fairly rigid conformation constrained by two disulphide bridges and adopts a conformation consisting of an antiparallel beta-sheet connected by a beta-turn. Isopeptides of tachyplesin I with amino acid replacements, tachyplesins II and III, and polyphemusins I and II have also been found in the haemocytes of the South-East Asian species and Limulus polyphemus. These peptides are present in abundance in the small granules of the haemocytes and inhibit strongly the growth of not only Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria but also fungi such as Candida albicans. Tachyplesin exists in the prepro form consisting of 77 residues; this precursor is probably processed by intracellular proteases and an amidation enzyme before incorporation into the small granules of the haemocytes. We examined the mode of action of tachyplesin I on biomembranes, comparing it with that of gramicidin S. Tachyplesin caused an efflux of K+ from Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli cells similar to that caused by gramicidin S. Another antimicrobial substance, anti-LPS factor, has been isolated from haemocytes.

Biochemical characterization and cloning of transglutaminases responsible for hemolymph clotting in Penaeus monodon and Marsupenaeus japonicus

To investigate the shrimp blood clotting enzyme, a transglutaminase in the hemocytes of Penaeus monodon (abbreviated as TGH) was purified. TGH is an abundant homodimeric cytosolic protein with 84.2 kDa subunits. It clotted shrimp plasma and incorporated fluorescent dansylcadaverine into succinyl casein upon activation by CaCl(2) in vitro. IC(50) for the activation was 3 mM, which is below the shrimp plasma Ca(2+) level. Showing similar properties as other type II transglutaminase, TGH was particularly unstable after activation. MALDI-TOF/TOF mass-analyses of tryptic peptides of P. monodon TGH confirmed its identity to STG I (AY074924) previously cloned. A possible allele of the other isozyme STG II (AY771615) has also been cloned from the P. monodon cDNA and designated as PmTG. The predicted PmTG protein sequence is 58% similar to that of STG I and 99.2% to that of STG II. Likewise, a novel enzyme Mj-TGH was purified and cloned from Marsupenaeus japonicus hemocytes. Results of sequence alignment and phylogenetic analyses of these transglutaminases suggest that STG I and Mj-TGH are 83% identical and orthologous to each other, while PmTG/STG II and a previously cloned M. japonicus transglutaminase (AB162767) are their paralogs. Protein of the latter two could not be isolated, their regulated expression was discussed.

Cell-mediated immunity in arthropods: Hematopoiesis, coagulation, melanization and opsonization

The functions of hemocytes in innate immune response are reviewed with emphasized on their roles in coagulation, melanization and opsonization. Also the ways in which hemocytes are produced in and released from hematopoietic tissue are discussed.

Spatial and temporal coordination of expression of immune response genes during Pseudomonas infection of horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda

Knowledge on how genes are turned on/off during infection and immunity is lacking. Here, we report the co-regulation of diverse clusters of functionally related immune response genes in a horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Expressed sequence tag (EST) clusters for frontline immune defense, cell signalling, apoptosis and stress response genes were expressed or repressed spatio-temporally during the acute phase of Pseudomonas infection. An infection time course monitored by virtual Northern evaluation indicates upregulation of genes in blood cells (amebocytes) at 3-h postinfection, whereas most of the hepatopancreas genes remained down regulated over 72 h of infection. Thus, the two tissues orchestrate a coordinated and timely response to infection. The hepatopancreas probably immuno-modulates the expression of other genes and serves as a reservoir for later response, if/when chronic infection ensues. On the other hand, being the first to encounter pathogens, we reasoned that amebocytes would respond acutely to infection. Besides acute transactivation of the immune genes, the amebocytes maintained morphological integrity, indicating their ability to synthesise and store/secrete the immune proteins and effectors to sustain the frontline innate immune defense, while simultaneously elicit complement-mediated phagocytosis of the invading pathogen. Our results show that the immune response against Pseudomonas infection is spatially and temporally coordinated.

Characterization of purified rat testicular transglutaminase and age-dependent changes of the enzyme activities

The Ca2+-dependent tissue transglutaminase is widely distributed in various tissues and has been reported to participate in many cellular growth and differentiation processes. In the past decade, tissue transglutaminase is also identified as a G protein, G(alphah), for intercellular signaling. To further characterize testicular transglutaminase, the rat testicular transglutaminase was purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation, DEAE ion-exchange, heparin-agarose, and GTP-agarose affinity chromatographies. This purification protocol resulted in a 8400-fold enrichment of the enzyme with a reproducible 15% yield. The purified enzyme showed as a single band of 78kDa on SDS-polyacrylamide gel. Western blot analysis using anti-liver tissue transglutaminase monoclonal antibody also recognized the enzyme, indicating it is a t-TGase in nature. The Km values of purified testicular transglutaminase for putrescine and N,N-dimethylcasein were determined to be 35 and 17 microM, respectively. Its transglutaminase cross-linking activity was strongly inhibited by EGTA, GTP, polyamines, and cystamine, as well as moderately by ATP and NaCl. The enzyme exhibited a magnesium-dependent GTP-hydrolyzing capacity, but its GTP-binding activity did not require magnesium. Furthermore, the enzyme activity was found to be closely related with the first wave of spermatogenesis. Thus, testicular transglutaminase is speculated to participate in the event of spermatogenesis. In conclusion, the purified testicular transglutaminase displays property of either the tissue-type transglutaminase, or the GTP-binding and hydrolyzing characteristics. The activity of testicular transglutaminase is age-dependent, greatly stimulated during the first wave of spermatogenesis.

Molecular cloning and characterization of tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) transglutaminase

Transglutaminases (TG) are important for blood coagulation and post-translation remodeling of proteins. Using a plaque screening assay, we isolated cDNA encoding a novel TG from a shrimp (Penaeus monodon) hemocyte cDNA library. The TG cDNA consists of 2988 bp with an open reading frame of 2271 bp. The deduced protein has 757 amino acid residues, a calculated molecular mass of 84,713 Da and an isoelectric point of 5.56. Neither a typical hydrophobic leader sequence nor a transmembrane domain could be identified from the deduced sequence. Thus, shrimp TG may be a typical cytoplasmic protein. The sequence of shrimp TG was similar to crayfish, other invertebrate and vertebrate TG sequences. Enzyme activity was detected in all organs tested. This is consistent with the widespread, low-level expression of TG mRNA. However, high levels of TG expression were detected in hematopoietic tissue. TG signals were stronger in mitotic cells, indicating that cell proliferation and TG synthesis are associated. Preliminary data showed that recombinant TG existed the enzyme activity but lacked coagulation activity.

A Toll-like receptor in horseshoe crabs

Non-self-recognition of invading microbes relies on the pattern-recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from microbial cell-wall components. Insects and mammals conserve a signaling pathway of the innate immune system through cell-surface receptors called Tolls and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are an important trigger of the horseshoe crab's innate immunity to infectious microorganisms. Horseshoe crabs' granular hemocytes respond specifically to LPS stimulation, inducing the secretion of various defense molecules from the granular hemocytes. Here, we show a cDNA which we named tToll, coding for a TLR identified from hemocytes of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. tToll is most closely related to Drosophila Toll in both domain architecture and overall length. Human TLRs have been suggested to contain numerous PAMP-binding insertions located in the leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) of their ectodomains. However, the LRRs of tToll contained no obvious PAMP-binding insertions. Furthermore, tToll was non-specifically expressed in horseshoe crab tissues. These observations suggest that tToll does not function as an LPS receptor on granular hemocytes.

In vivo cross-linking of nucleosomal histones catalyzed by nuclear transglutaminase in starfish sperm and its induction by egg jelly triggering the acrosome reaction

A histone heterodimer, designated as p28, which contains an Nepsilon(gamma-glutamyl)lysine cross-link between Gln9 of histone H2B and Lys5 or Lys12 of histone H4, is present in starfish (Asterina pectinifera) sperm. Treatment of sperm nuclei with micrococcal nuclease produced soluble chromatin, which was size-fractionated by sucrose-gradient centrifugation to give p28-containing oligonucleosome and p28-free mononucleosome fractions, indicating that the cross-link is internucleosomal. When sperm nuclei were incubated with monodansylcadaverine, a fluorescent amine, in the presence or absence of Ca(2+), histone H2B was modified only in the presence of Ca(2+). Gln9, in the N-terminal region, was modified, but the other Gln residues located in the internal region were not, suggesting that the modification takes place on the surface of the nucleosome core by the in situ action of a Ca(2+)-dependent nuclear transglutaminase. Treatment of sperm with the egg jelly, which activates Ca(2+) influx to induce the acrosome reaction, resulted in a significant elevation of the p28 content in the nucleus. This is the first demonstration of an in vivo activation of transglutaminase leading to the formation of a cross-link in intracellular proteins.

Proline-rich cell surface antigens of horseshoe crab hemocytes are substrates for protein cross-linking with a clotting protein coagulin

Monoclonal antibodies were raised against hemocytes of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. All of the antibodies obtained reacted with the same protein bands on SDS-PAGE of hemocyte lysate. Flow cytometry and biotinylation of surface substances on the hemocytes indicated that the antigens are major peripheral proteins of hemocytes. The antigens were purified from hemocyte lysate and were good substrates for the horseshoe crab hemocyte transglutaminase (HcTGase). Transglutaminases play an important role during the final stage of blood coagulation in mammals and crustaceans. Although HcTGase did not intermolecularly cross-link a clottable protein coagulogen or its proteolytic product coagulin, HcTGase promoted the cross-linking of coagulin with the surface antigens, resulting in the formation of a stable polymer. We determined the nucleotide sequences for two isoproteins of the antigens. The two proteins containing 271 and 284 residues (66% identity) were composed of tandem repeats of proline-rich segments. We named them proxins-1 and -2 after proline-rich proteins for protein cross-linking. Proxins may form a stable physical barrier against invading pathogens in cooperation with hemolymph coagulation at injured sites.

A transglutaminase involved in the coagulation system of the freshwater crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus. Tissue localisation and cDNA cloning

The crayfish haemolymph can form stable and insoluble clots by a transglutaminase (TGase)-catalysed crosslinking reaction between the soluble clotting protein molecules from the plasma. The crayfish haemocytes, both semigranular and granular cells, as well as the muscle tissue, contain TGase activity, whereas the hepatopancreas and plasma have no TGase activity. A 3199 bp cDNA encoding a TGase was isolated from a crayfish haemocyte cDNA library. The deduced protein comprises 766 amino acid residues and has a calculated molecular mass of between 85,930 and 86,034 kDa due to four amino acid variations. This gene is expressed as a single 4.9 kb transcript exclusively in the haemocytes and at very low levels in muscle and the hepatopancreas. Sequence comparison shows that this TGase has significant similarities to other TGases from invertebrates and mammals.

Proteinase activity in the white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) clotting protein

The clottable protein (CP) was isolated from white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei plasma as a 400-kDa protein that splits to two identical 200-kDa subunits when it is reduced with 2-ME. However, using DTT as reducing agent, four main bands were observed; two of them (179 and 125 kDa) had the same N-terminus sequence of the intact CP, indicating that most fragmentation occurs in the carboxy-terminus. The proteinase activity of reduced CP was detected using azoalbumin as substrate. Proteinase activity was only detected in the reduced, but not alkylated protein. Trypsin and papain, as well as soybean trypsin inhibitor and E64, were included for comparison. Proteolytic activity of reduced CP was inhibited by E64, but not by STI, indicating that such activity corresponds to a cysteine type proteinase.

Head-to-tail polymerization of coagulin, a clottable protein of the horseshoe crab

A clottable protein coagulogen of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus is proteolytically converted into an insoluble coagulin gel through non-covalent self-polymerization. Here we identified binding sites for the polymerization. A tryptic fragment, derived from the coagulin polymer chemically cross-linked by a bifunctional cross-linker, was isolated. Amino acid sequence analysis indicated that the fragment consists of two peptides cross-linked between Lys(85) and Lys(156). The two lysine residues are oppositely located at the head and tail regions of the elongated molecule separated by a much greater distance than the length of the cross-linker, which suggests that the cross-linking occurs intermolecularly. Based on the x-ray structural analysis, exposure of a hydrophobic cove on the head in response to the release of peptide C has been postulated (Bergner, A., Oganessyan, V., Muta, T., Iwanaga, S., Typke, D., Huber, R., and Bode, W. (1996) EMBO J. 15, 6789-6797). An octapeptide containing Tyr(136), which occupies the tail end of coagulin, was found to inhibit the polymerization. Replacement of Tyr(136) of the peptide with Ala resulted in loss of the inhibitory activity. These results indicated that the polymerization of coagulin proceeds through the interaction between the newly exposed hydrophobic cove on the head and the wedge-shaped hydrophobic tail.

Transglutaminase-catalyzed reactions in the growth, maturation and development of parasitic nematodes

Parasitic nematodes cause several debilitating diseases in humans and animals. New drugs that are parasite specific and minimally toxic to the host are needed to counter these infections effectively. The identification and inhibition of enzymes that are vital for the growth and survival of parasites offer new approaches for developing effective chemotherapeutic agents. Several enzymes in nematodes fall into this category. Here, Ramaswamy Chandrashekar and Kapil Mehta examine in detail the role of transglutaminase, a protein-crosslinking enzyme, in the normal growth and development of nematodes, with an emphasis on filarial parasites.

The crayfish plasma clotting protein: a vitellogenin-related protein responsible for clot formation in crustacean blood

Coagulation in crayfish blood is based on the transglutaminase-mediated crosslinking of a specific plasma clotting protein. Here we report the cloning of the subunit of this clotting protein from a crayfish hepatopancreas cDNA library. The ORF encodes a protein of 1,721 amino acids, including a signal peptide of 15 amino acids. Sequence analysis reveals that the clotting protein is homologous to vitellogenins, which are proteins found in vitellogenic females of egg-laying animals. The clotting protein and vitellogenins are all lipoproteins and share a limited sequence similarity to certain other lipoproteins (e.g., mammalian apolipoprotein B and microsomal triglyceride transfer protein) and contain a stretch with similarity to the D domain of mammalian von Willebrand factor. The crayfish clotting protein is present in both sexes, unlike the female-specific vitellogenins. Electron microscopy was used to visualize individual clotting protein molecules and to study the transglutaminase-mediated clotting reaction. In the presence of an endogenous transglutaminase, the purified clotting protein molecules rapidly assemble into long, flexible chains that occasionally branch.

Characterization of 101-kDa transglutaminase from Physarum polycephalum and identification of LAV1-2 as substrate

Plasmodial transglutaminase of Physarum polycephalum was purified by anion exchange and hydrophobic chromatography. Gel filtration and SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicate that it is a monomer of 96-101 kDa. It is Ca2+-dependent, with half-maximal activity at 0. 7 mM Ca2+. Optimal activity occurs at pH 7.5 and at 50 mM KCl. Inactivation by N-ethylmaleimide indicates that it is a thiol enzyme. With N,N-dimethylcasein as substrate, the Km for monodansylcadaverine is 33.9 +/- 1.8 microM. Damage of plasmodia by brief treatment with 15% ethanol activates the transglutaminase, with rapid accumulation of cross-linked proteins unable to enter gels during SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Added monodansylcadaverine is conjugated principally to LAV1-2, a plasmodia-specific 40-kDa protein with four EF-hand sequences believed to bind Ca2+. Actin is seen as an additional substrate only in plasmodial homogenates. Immunoblots show that upon ethanol treatment, a portion of LAV1-2 is modified quickly and shifts to 36 kDa; another portion is cross-linked to itself or other proteins. The modification of LAV1-2 may lead to localized release of Ca2+ and activation of transglutaminase for walling off damaged areas of plasmodia. No significant increase in amount of the transglutaminase occurs during starvation-induced differentiation of plasmodia to form spherules, but a 50% reduction in the amount of total protein leads to a doubling in the specific mass of the TGase. Neither the transglutaminase nor LAV1-2 is found in the ameboid form of the organism.

How many insulin-like growth factor binding proteins?

Mac25, connective tissue growth factor, the nov-oncogene and cyr61 have been proposed as insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs) although they bind the ligand with very low affinity. Sequence similarity between the candidate proteins and the recognised IGFBPs is restricted to a single cysteine-rich N-terminal domain. The cysteine-rich domain (CRD) can be found in other vertebrate and invertebrate proteins that are associated with the extracellular matrix but otherwise have vastly different functions. Characteristically, the proteins with the CRD have a modular architecture suggesting that exon shuffling has played a significant role in their evolution. Although the proposed candidate proteins may not be IGFBPs, linkage relationships of the latter suggest that two other IGFBPs may indeed exist.

The role of hemolymph coagulation in innate immunity

Invertebrate animals, which lack adaptive immune systems, have developed defense systems that respond to common antigens on the surface of potential pathogens. Hemolymph coagulation is one such defense system in innate immunity. The discovery of lipopolysaccharide-sensitive and (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan-sensitive serine protease zymogens in horseshoe crab (limulus) hemocytes, both of which trigger the coagulation cascade, has exemplified how the animals detect and respond to foreign materials.

Clotting and immune defense in Limulidae

The blue blood of the horseshoe crab contains a sophisticated defense system very sensitive to pathogens or foreign materials. The hemocytes circulating in the hemolymph detect trace amounts of LPS molecules on the invading microorganisms and respond quickly to release the granular components into the external milieu. The coagulation system composed of three serine protease zymogens, factor C, factor B, and proclotting enzyme, and a clottable protein, coagulogen, is activated by LPS to form insoluble coagulin gel. The coagulation system also responds to beta-(1,3) glucan through the activation of unique heterodimeric serine protease zymogen, factor G. The pathogens are, thus, engulfed in the gel and subsequently killed by antimicrobial substances with various specificities, which are also released from cells. The horseshoe crab has developed two kinds of serine protease zymogens as biological sensors, factor C and factor G, which are responsive to LPS and beta-(1,3) glucan on the surface of Gram-negative bacteria and fungi, respectively. These are possible invaders for horseshoe crabs and also for most animals including humans. This novel heterodimeric serine protease zymogen, factor G, may open a new way to develop an innovative assay system to quantitate beta-(1,3) glucans. Furthermore, these LPS and beta-(1,3) glucan sensitive factors could be utilized as a unique tool to analyze other biological reactions caused by LPS or the glucan. Although the coagulation reaction in horseshoe crabs is famous, it is not the only defense mechanism of this animal. Many agglutinins are present either in hemolymph plasma or in the cell. The hemolymph plasma also has cytolytic activity against foreign cells. These cellular and humoral defense systems, in concert, defend themselves from invading foreign organisms. Such a sophisticated defense system has allowed the horseshoe crab to survive for more than 200 million years on the earth. Horseshoe crabs are often called ¿living fossils." However, they are not fossils. They are living.

Purification and characterization of a novel transglutaminase from filarial nematode Brugia malayi

A transglutaminase (pTGase) was purified from filarial nematode, Brugia malayi. The steps used for purification were thermoprecipitation, ammonium sulfate precipitation, gel filtration on Superose 12 HR 10/30, ion-exchange chromatography on a Mono-Q column and further gel filtration on Superose 12 HR 10/30. The last step yielded an electrophoretically homogenous enzyme protein with 2200-fold purification and a reproducible yield of approximately 20%. The purified enzyme had a molecular mass of 56 kDa, specific activity of 2.25 U/mg protein and an isoelectric point of 7.2. The enzyme was active in the basic pH range with an optimum activity at pH 8.5. The pTGase activity was Ca(2+)-dependent and was inhibited by ammonia, primary amines, EDTA, and -SH group blocking reagents. The enzyme activity was also inhibited by high salt (NaCl and KCl) concentrations, detergents, metal ions, and organic solvents. Ampholine (pH 6-8) at 1% (by vol.) caused about 20% inhibition of pTGase activity but at 3% (by vol.) the inhibition increased up to 80%. Similarly, the micromolar concentrations of GTP inhibited the enzyme activity only moderately but at millimolar concentration a significant inhibition was observed. The stability of the pTGase was not affected by 0.1% SDS or other physical parameters such as freezing and thawing. Further, the pTGase was found to be highly thermostable (stable at 60 degrees C for several hours) with optimum activity observed at 55 degrees C. The distinct substrate specificity, unique N-terminal sequence along with the other physico-chemical properties studied, suggested that pTGase is a novel member of transglutaminase family.

Role of hemocyte-derived granular components in invertebrate defense

Figure 2 illustrates an outline of the cellular and humoral defense systems in limulus. On the basis of the knowledge described above, it is suggested that granular components present in L and S granules in the hemocytes play a decisive role in the biological defense for this animal. The isolated L granules contain at least three clotting factors plus coagulogen as the major component. The known anti-LPS factor and a number of additional unknown protein components are also present in the L granules. On the other hand, the isolated S granules contain antimicrobial tachyplesins as the major component, in addition to six unidentified proteins. We speculate that the L-granule-derived protein components, which probably contain all the factors essential for the Limulus clotting system participate, in immobilizing invading microbes, and that the S-granule-derived tachyplesins contribute to a self-defense system against invaders. Although we have not mentioned hemolymph plasma components, there are many humoral factors, such as proteinase inhibitors, alpha 2-macroglobulin, various lectins, C-reactive protein, and polyphemin, all of which are important for antimicrobial defense. Furthermore, Liu and colleagues have reported several endotoxin-binding proteins and a cell-adhesion protein found in the Limulus hemocytes. Although the exact functions of these substances are unknown, they may act in concert with other components to provide biological defense for the animal. Nevertheless, compared to our knowledge of mammalian blood cells, much less remains to be learned of biological/physiological events in horseshoe crab hemocytes.