1
|
Harwood SL, Enghild JJ. Engineering New Protease Inhibitors Using α 2-Macroglobulin. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2747:279-294. [PMID: 38038947 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3589-6_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Protease inhibitors of the alpha-macroglobulin family (αM) have a unique mechanism that allows them to trap proteases that is dependent not on the protease's class, but rather on its cleavage specificity. Proteases trigger a conformational change in the αM protein by cleaving within a "bait region," resulting in the sequestering of the protease inside the αM molecule. This nonspecific inhibitory mechanism appears to have arisen early in the αM family, and the broad protease-trapping capacity that it allows may play a role in pathogen defense.Human α2-macroglobulin (A2M) is a tetrameric αM whose bait region is permissive to cleavage by most proteases, making it a broad-spectrum protease inhibitor. Recent work has demonstrated that the inhibitory capacity of A2M derives directly from its bait region sequence: modifying the bait region sequence to introduce or remove protease cleavage sites will modify A2M's inhibition of the relevant proteases accordingly. Thus, changing the amino acid sequence of the bait region presents an effective avenue for protein engineering of new protease inhibitors if the substrate specificity of the target protease is known. The design of new A2M-based protease inhibitors with tailored inhibitory capacities has potential applications in basic research and the clinic. In this chapter, we describe the general approach and considerations for the bait region engineering of A2M.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan J Enghild
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tomihari A, Kiyota M, Matsuura A, Itakura E. Alpha 2-macroglobulin acts as a clearance factor in the lysosomal degradation of extracellular misfolded proteins. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4680. [PMID: 36977730 PMCID: PMC10050189 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-31104-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteostasis regulates protein folding and degradation; its maintenance is essential for resistance to stress and aging. The loss of proteostasis is associated with many age-related diseases. Within the cell, molecular chaperones facilitate the refolding of misfolded proteins into their bioactive forms, thus preventing undesirable interactions and aggregation. Although the mechanisms of intracellular protein degradation pathways for intracellular misfolded proteins have been extensively studied, the protein degradation pathway for extracellular proteins remain poorly understood. In this study, we identified several misfolded proteins that are substrates for alpha 2-macroglobulin (α2M), an extracellular chaperone. We also established a lysosomal internalization assay for α2M, which revealed that α2M mediates the lysosomal degradation of extracellular misfolded proteins. Comparative analyses of α2M and clusterin, another extracellular chaperone, indicated that α2M preferentially targets aggregation-prone proteins. Thus, we present the degradation pathway of α2M, which interacts with aggregation-prone proteins for lysosomal degradation via selective internalization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ayaka Tomihari
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Chiba University, Inage-Ku, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan
| | - Mako Kiyota
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Chiba University, Inage-Ku, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan
| | - Akira Matsuura
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, Inage-Ku, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan
| | - Eisuke Itakura
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, Inage-Ku, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Mendes SR, Gomis-Rüth FX, Goulas T. Frozen fresh blood plasma preserves the functionality of native human α 2-macroglobulin. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4579. [PMID: 36941303 PMCID: PMC10027685 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-31800-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Human α2-macroglobulin (hα2M) is a large homotetrameric protein involved in the broad inhibition of endopeptidases. Following cleavage within a bait region, hα2M undergoes stepwise transitions from its native, expanded, highly flexible, active conformation to an induced, compact, triggered conformation. As a consequence, the peptidase is entrapped by an irreversible Venus flytrap mechanism. Given the importance of hα2M, biochemical studies galore over more than seven decades have attempted to ascertain its role, typically using authentic hα2M purified from frozen and non-frozen fresh blood plasma, and even outdated plasma. However, hα2M is sensitive once isolated and purified, and becomes heterogeneous during storage and/or freezing, raising concerns about the functional competence of frozen plasma-derived hα2M. We therefore used a combination of native and sodium dodecylsulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, affinity and ion-exchange chromatography, multi-angle laser light scattering after size-exclusion chromatography, free cysteine quantification, and peptidase inhibition assays with endopeptidases of two catalytic classes and three protein substrates, to characterize the biochemical and biophysical properties of hα2M purified ad hoc either from fresh plasma or frozen fresh plasma after thawing. We found no differences in the molecular or functional properties of the preparations, indicating that protective components in plasma maintain native hα2M in a functionally competent state despite freezing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Soraia R Mendes
- Proteolysis Lab, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, c/Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - F Xavier Gomis-Rüth
- Proteolysis Lab, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, c/Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Theodoros Goulas
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, 43100, Karditsa, Greece.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
The Emerging Roles of Extracellular Chaperones in Complement Regulation. Cells 2022; 11:cells11233907. [PMID: 36497163 PMCID: PMC9738919 DOI: 10.3390/cells11233907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system is essential to protect organisms from internal and external threats. The rapidly acting, non-specific innate immune system includes complement, which initiates an inflammatory cascade and can form pores in the membranes of target cells to induce cell lysis. Regulation of protein homeostasis (proteostasis) is essential for normal cellular and organismal function, and has been implicated in processes controlling immunity and infection. Chaperones are key players in maintaining proteostasis in both the intra- and extracellular environments. Whilst intracellular proteostasis is well-characterised, the role of constitutively secreted extracellular chaperones (ECs) is less well understood. ECs may interact with invading pathogens, and elements of the subsequent immune response, including the complement pathway. Both ECs and complement can influence the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, as well as other diseases including kidney diseases and diabetes. This review will examine known and recently discovered ECs, and their roles in immunity, with a specific focus on the complement pathway.
Collapse
|
5
|
Li GY, Yang L, Xiao KR, Song QS, Stanley D, Wei SJ, Zhu JY. Characterization and expression profiling of serine protease inhibitors in the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 111:e21948. [PMID: 35749627 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Serine protease inhibitors (SPIs) act in diverse biological processes in insects such as immunity, development, and digestion by preventing the unwanted proteolysis. So far, the repertoire of genes encoding SPIs has been identified from few insect species. In this study, 62 SPI genes were identified from the genome of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor. According to their modes of action, they were classified into three families, serpin (26), canonical SPI (31), and α-macroglobulins (A2M) (5). These SPIs feature eight domains including serpin, Kazal, TIL, Kunitz, WAP, Antistasin, pacifastin, and A2M. In total, 39 SPIs contain a single SPI domain, while the others encode at least two inhibitor units. Based on the amino acids in the cleaved reactive sites, the abilities of these SPIs to inhibit trypsin, chymotrypsin, or elastase-like enzymes are predicted. The expression profiling based on the RNA-seq data showed that these genes displayed stage-specific expression patterns during development, suggesting to us their significance in development. Some of the SPI genes were exclusively expressed in particular tissues such as hemocyte, fat body, gut, ovary, and testis, which may be involved in biological processes specific to the indicated tissues. These findings provide necessary information for further investigation of insect SPIs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Ya Li
- Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Lin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Kai-Ran Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| | - Qi-Sheng Song
- Division of Plant Science and Technology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - David Stanley
- USDA/ARS Biological Control of Insects Research Laboratory, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Shu-Jun Wei
- Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
- Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jia-Ying Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
- Key Laboratory for Forest Resources Conservation and Utilization in the Southwest Mountains of China, Ministry of Education, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wang X, Li L, Wei X, Li P, Zhao Y, Zhao R, Duan Z. Improving the symptoms of post-traumatic osteoarthritis by α2-macroglobulin-rich serum. Connect Tissue Res 2022; 63:615-624. [PMID: 35311424 DOI: 10.1080/03008207.2022.2051499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Altered joint loading by trauma induces joint degeneration, eventually leading to the generation of post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Recent studies have shown that α2-macroglobulin (A2M) inhibits PTOA, induced by anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT), pathogenesis by regulating proinflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases. However, the application of A2M is limited due to high prices. Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore the novel preparation of A2M. MATERIALS AND METHODS The early change of A2M in synovial fluid and serum was measured by ELISA. Ultra-filtered centrifugation was performed to prepare α2-macroglobulin-rich serum (A2MRS). The bioactivity of A2M in A2MRS was detected by improved Ellis and Gollas-Galvan method. The effects of A2MRS on PTOA were observed using immunohistochemistry, safranine O staining, micro X-ray, fluorescence molecular tomography etc. RESULTS The concentration of A2M in PTOA group was significantly higher than that in Sham group in synovial fluid on the third day after ACLT in rat PTOA model. On the contrary, a significant downregulation of A2M levels in PTOA group was observed compared to the Sham group in serum at the seventh day after ACLT. Secondly, A2MRS was prepared successfully, and the concentration and bioactivity of A2M in A2MRS was significantly higher than that in serum. Lastly, A2MRS not only reduced notably the production of secondary cartilage ossification, type 10 collagen and matrix metalloproteinase 13, but also increased profoundly the generation of type 2 collagen, aggrecan, and chondrocytes' number. CONCLUSION Our results indicate that A2MRS has protective effects on PTOA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohu Wang
- Orthopedics department, The second hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Lu Li
- Orthopedics department, The second hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaochun Wei
- Orthopedics department, The second hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Pengcui Li
- Orthopedics department, The second hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Yu Zhao
- Orthopedics department, The second hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Ruipeng Zhao
- Orthopedics department, The second hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Zhiqing Duan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Harwood SL, Diep K, Nielsen NS, Jensen KT, Enghild JJ. The conformational change of the protease inhibitor α 2-macroglobulin is triggered by the retraction of the cleaved bait region from a central channel. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102230. [PMID: 35787371 PMCID: PMC9352918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The protease inhibitor α2-macroglobulin (A2M) is a member of the ancient α2-macroglobulin superfamily (A2MF), which also includes structurally related proteins, such as complement factor C3. A2M and other A2MF proteins undergo an extensive conformational change upon cleavage of their bait region by proteases. However, the mechanism whereby cleavage triggers the change has not yet been determined. We have previously shown that A2M remains functional after completely replacing its bait region with glycine and serine residues. Here, we use this tabula rasa bait region to investigate several hypotheses for the triggering mechanism. When tabula rasa bait regions containing disulfide loops were elongated by reducing the disulfides, we found that A2M remained in its native conformation. In addition, cleavage within a disulfide loop did not trigger the conformational change until after the disulfide was reduced, indicating that the introduction of discontinuity into the bait region is essential to the trigger. Previously, A2MF structures have shown that the C-terminal end of the bait region (a.k.a. the N-terminal region of the truncated α chain) threads through a central channel in native A2MF proteins. Bait region cleavage abolishes this plug-in-channel arrangement, as the bait region retracts from the channel and the channel itself collapses. We found that mutagenesis of conserved plug-in-channel residues disrupted the formation of native A2M. These results provide experimental evidence for a structural hypothesis in which retraction of the bait region from this channel following cleavage and the channel’s subsequent collapse triggers the conformational change of A2M and other A2MF proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Khang Diep
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | - Nadia Sukusu Nielsen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | | | - Jan J Enghild
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Huang X, Wang Y, Yu C, Zhang H, Ru Q, Li X, Song K, Zhou M, Zhu P. Cryo-EM structures reveal the dynamic transformation of human alpha-2-macroglobulin working as a protease inhibitor. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2022; 65:2491-2504. [PMID: 35781771 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-022-2139-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Human alpha-2-macroglobulin is a well-known inhibitor of a broad spectrum of proteases and plays important roles in immunity, inflammation, and infections. Here, we report the cryo-EM structures of human alpha-2-macroglobulin in its native state, induced state transformed by its authentic substrate, human trypsin, and serial intermediate states between the native and fully induced states. These structures exhibit distinct conformations, which reveal the dynamic transformation of alpha-2-macro-globulin that acts as a protease inhibitor. The results shed light on the molecular mechanism of alpha-2-macroglobulin in entrapping substrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxing Huang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Youwang Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Cong Yu
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qiang Ru
- The Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) and Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Xinxin Li
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Kai Song
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Min Zhou
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Ping Zhu
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Prescott L. SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro whole human proteome cleavage prediction and enrichment/depletion analysis. Comput Biol Chem 2022; 98:107671. [PMID: 35429835 PMCID: PMC8958254 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2022.107671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has devastated the globe as a pandemic that has killed millions of people. Widespread vaccination is still uncertain, so many scientific efforts have been directed toward discovering antiviral treatments. Many drugs are being investigated to inhibit the coronavirus main protease, 3CLpro, from cleaving its viral polyprotein, but few publications have addressed this protease’s interactions with the host proteome or their probable contribution to virulence. Too few host protein cleavages have been experimentally verified to fully understand 3CLpro’s global effects on relevant cellular pathways and tissues. Here, I set out to determine this protease’s targets and corresponding potential drug targets. Using a neural network trained on cleavages from 392 coronavirus proteomes with a Matthews correlation coefficient of 0.985, I predict that a large proportion of the human proteome is vulnerable to 3CLpro, with 4898 out of approximately 20,000 human proteins containing at least one putative cleavage site. These cleavages are nonrandomly distributed and are enriched in the epithelium along the respiratory tract, brain, testis, plasma, and immune tissues and depleted in olfactory and gustatory receptors despite the prevalence of anosmia and ageusia in COVID-19 patients. Affected cellular pathways include cytoskeleton/motor/cell adhesion proteins, nuclear condensation and other epigenetics, host transcription and RNAi, ribosomal stoichiometry and nascent-chain detection and degradation, ubiquitination, pattern recognition receptors, coagulation, lipoproteins, redox, and apoptosis. This whole proteome cleavage prediction demonstrates the importance of 3CLpro in expected and nontrivial pathways affecting virulence, lead me to propose more than a dozen potential therapeutic targets against coronaviruses, and should therefore be applied to all viral proteases and subsequently experimentally verified.
Collapse
|
10
|
RNA binding motif 47 (RBM47): emerging roles in vertebrate development, RNA editing and cancer. Mol Cell Biochem 2021; 476:4493-4505. [PMID: 34499322 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04256-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are critical players in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression and are associated with each event in RNA metabolism. The term 'RNA-binding motif' (RBM) is assigned to novel RBPs with one or more RNA recognition motif (RRM) domains that are mainly involved in the nuclear processing of RNAs. RBM47 is a novel RBP conserved in vertebrates with three RRM domains whose contributions to various aspects of cellular functions are as yet emerging. Loss of RBM47 function affects head morphogenesis in zebrafish embryos and leads to perinatal lethality in mouse embryos, thereby assigning it to be an essential gene in early development of vertebrates. Its function as an essential cofactor for APOBEC1 in C to U RNA editing of several targets through substitution for A1CF in the A1CF-APOBEC1 editosome, established a new paradigm in the field. Recent advances in the understanding of its involvement in cancer progression assigned RBM47 to be a tumor suppressor that acts by inhibiting EMT and Wnt/[Formula: see text]-catenin signaling through post-transcriptional regulation. RBM47 is also required to maintain immune homeostasis, which adds another facet to its regulatory role in cellular functions. Here, we review the emerging roles of RBM47 in various biological contexts and discuss the current gaps in our knowledge alongside future perspectives for the field.
Collapse
|
11
|
Harwood SL, Nielsen NS, Diep K, Jensen KT, Nielsen PK, Yamamoto K, Enghild JJ. Development of selective protease inhibitors via engineering of the bait region of human α 2-macroglobulin. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:100879. [PMID: 34139236 PMCID: PMC8267569 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Human α2-macroglobulin (A2M) is an abundant protease inhibitor in plasma, which regulates many proteolytic processes and is involved in innate immunity. A2M’s unique protease-trapping mechanism of inhibition is initiated when a protease cleaves within the exposed and highly susceptible “bait region.” As the wild-type bait region is permissive to cleavage by most human proteases, A2M is accordingly a broad-spectrum protease inhibitor. In this study, we extensively modified the bait region in order to identify any potential functionally important elements in the bait region sequence and to engineer A2M proteins with restrictive bait regions, which more selectively inhibit a target protease. A2M in which the bait region was entirely replaced by glycine-serine repeats remained fully functional and was not cleaved by any tested protease. Therefore, this bait region was designated as the “tabula rasa” bait region and used as the starting point for further bait region engineering. Cleavage of the tabula rasa bait region by specific proteases was conveyed by the insertion of appropriate substrate sequences, e.g., basic residues for trypsin. Screening and optimization of tabula rasa bait regions incorporating matrix metalloprotease 2 (MMP2) substrate sequences produced an A2M that was specifically cleaved by MMPs and inhibited MMP2 cleavage activity as efficiently as wild-type A2M. We propose that this approach can be used to develop A2M-based protease inhibitors, which selectively inhibit target proteases, which might be applied toward the clinical inhibition of dysregulated proteolysis as occurs in arthritis and many types of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seandean Lykke Harwood
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Global Research Technologies, Novo Nordisk A/S, Måløv, Denmark
| | - Nadia Sukusu Nielsen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Khang Diep
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | | | - Kazuhiro Yamamoto
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jan J Enghild
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Harwood SL, Lyngsø J, Zarantonello A, Kjøge K, Nielsen PK, Andersen GR, Pedersen JS, Enghild JJ. Structural Investigations of Human A2M Identify a Hollow Native Conformation That Underlies Its Distinctive Protease-Trapping Mechanism. Mol Cell Proteomics 2021; 20:100090. [PMID: 33964423 PMCID: PMC8167298 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2021.100090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human α2-macroglobulin (A2M) is the most characterized protease inhibitor in the alpha-macroglobulin (αM) superfamily, but the structure of its native conformation has not been determined. Here, we combined negative stain electron microscopy (EM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and cross-linking-mass spectrometry (XL-MS) to investigate native A2M and its collapsed conformations that are obtained through aminolysis of its thiol ester by methylamine or cleavage of its bait region by trypsin. The combined interpretation of these data resulted in a model of the native A2M tetramer and its conformational changes. Native A2M consists of two crescent-shaped disulfide-bridged subunit dimers, which face toward each other and surround a central hollow space. In native A2M, interactions across the disulfide-bridged dimers are minimal, with a single major interface between the linker (LNK) regions of oppositely positioned subunits. Bait region cleavage induces both intrasubunit domain repositioning and an altered configuration of the disulfide-bridged dimer. These changes collapse the tetramer into a more compact conformation, which encloses an interior protease-trapping cavity. A recombinant A2M with a modified bait region was used to map the bait region's position in native A2M by XL-MS. A second recombinant A2M introduced an intersubunit disulfide into the LNK region, demonstrating the predicted interactions between these regions in native A2M. Altogether, our native A2M model provides a structural foundation for understanding A2M's protease-trapping mechanism, its conformation-dependent receptor interactions, and the dissociation of native A2M into dimers due to inflammatory oxidative stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seandean Lykke Harwood
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Global Research Technologies, Novo Nordisk A/S, Måløv, Denmark
| | - Jeppe Lyngsø
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Katarzyna Kjøge
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Gregers Rom Andersen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jan Skov Pedersen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| | - Jan J Enghild
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Quench me if you can: Alpha-2-macroglobulin trypsin complexes enable serum biomarker analysis by MALDI mass spectrometry. Biochimie 2021; 185:87-95. [PMID: 33744341 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2021.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
One of the main functions of alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2M) in human blood serum is the binding of all classes of protease. It is known that trypsin, after such interaction, possesses modified proteolytic activity. Trypsin first hydrolyzes two bonds in A2M's 'bait region', and the peptide 705VGFYESDVMGR715 is released from A2M. In this work, specifics of the A2M-trypsin interaction were used to determine A2M concentration directly in human blood serum using MALDI mass-spectrometry. Following exogenous addition of trypsin to human blood serum in vitro, the concentration of the VGFYESDVMGR peptide was measured, using its isotopically-labeled analogue (18O), and A2M concentration was calculated. The optimized mass spectrometric approach was verified using a standard method for A2M concentration determination (ELISA) and the relevant statistical analysis methods. It was also shown that trypsin's modified proteolytic activity in the presence of serum A2M can be used to analyze other serum proteins, including potential biomarkers of pathological processes. Thus, this work describes a promising approach to serum biomarker analysis that can be technically extended in several useful directions.
Collapse
|
14
|
Pihl R, Jensen RK, Poulsen EC, Jensen L, Hansen AG, Thøgersen IB, Dobó J, Gál P, Andersen GR, Enghild JJ, Thiel S. ITIH4 acts as a protease inhibitor by a novel inhibitory mechanism. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/2/eaba7381. [PMID: 33523981 PMCID: PMC7793589 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aba7381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Inter-α-inhibitor heavy chain 4 (ITIH4) is a poorly characterized plasma protein that is proteolytically processed in multiple pathological conditions. However, no biological function of ITIH4 has been identified. Here, we show that ITIH4 is cleaved by several human proteases within a protease-susceptible region, enabling ITIH4 to function as a protease inhibitor. This is exemplified by its inhibition of mannan-binding lectin-associated serine protease-1 (MASP-1), MASP-2, and plasma kallikrein, which are key proteases for intravascular host defense. Mechanistically, ITIH4 acts as bait that, upon cleavage, forms a noncovalent, inhibitory complex with the executing protease that depends on the ITIH4 von Willebrand factor A domain. ITIH4 inhibits the MASPs by sterically preventing larger protein substrates from accessing their active sites, which remain accessible and fully functional toward small substrates. Thus, we demonstrate that ITIH4 functions as a protease inhibitor by a previously undescribed inhibitory mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rasmus Pihl
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Rasmus K Jensen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Emil C Poulsen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Lisbeth Jensen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Ida B Thøgersen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - József Dobó
- Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter Gál
- Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gregers R Andersen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jan J Enghild
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Steffen Thiel
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Harwood SL, Nielsen NS, Jensen KT, Nielsen PK, Thøgersen IB, Enghild JJ. α 2-Macroglobulin-like protein 1 can conjugate and inhibit proteases through their hydroxyl groups, because of an enhanced reactivity of its thiol ester. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:16732-16742. [PMID: 32978260 PMCID: PMC7864068 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.015694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins in the α-macroglobulin (αM) superfamily use thiol esters to form covalent conjugation products upon their proteolytic activation. αM protease inhibitors use theirs to conjugate proteases and preferentially react with primary amines (e.g. on lysine side chains), whereas those of αM complement components C3 and C4B have an increased hydroxyl reactivity that is conveyed by a conserved histidine residue and allows conjugation to cell surface glycans. Human α2-macroglobulin-like protein 1 (A2ML1) is a monomeric protease inhibitor but has the hydroxyl reactivity-conveying histidine residue. Here, we have investigated the role of hydroxyl reactivity in a protease inhibitor by comparing recombinant WT A2ML1 and the A2ML1 H1084N mutant in which this histidine is removed. Both of A2ML1s' thiol esters were reactive toward the amine substrate glycine, but only WT A2ML1 reacted with the hydroxyl substrate glycerol, demonstrating that His-1084 increases the hydroxyl reactivity of A2ML1's thiol ester. Although both A2ML1s conjugated and inhibited thermolysin, His-1084 was required for the conjugation and inhibition of acetylated thermolysin, which lacks primary amines. Using MS, we identified an ester bond formed between a thermolysin serine residue and the A2ML1 thiol ester. These results demonstrate that a histidine-enhanced hydroxyl reactivity can contribute to protease inhibition by an αM protein. His-1084 did not improve A2ML1's protease inhibition at pH 5, indicating that A2ML1's hydroxyl reactivity is not an adaption to its acidic epidermal environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seandean Lykke Harwood
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; General Research Technologies, Novo Nordisk A/S, Måløv, Denmark
| | - Nadia Sukusu Nielsen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | | | - Ida B Thøgersen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jan J Enghild
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
A New Assessment of Thioester-Containing Proteins Diversity of the Freshwater Snail Biomphalaria glabrata. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11010069. [PMID: 31936127 PMCID: PMC7016707 DOI: 10.3390/genes11010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Thioester-containing proteins (TEPs) superfamily is known to play important innate immune functions in a wide range of animal phyla. TEPs are involved in recognition, and in the direct or mediated killing of several invading organisms or pathogens. While several TEPs have been identified in many invertebrates, only one TEP (named BgTEP) has been previously characterized in the freshwater snail, Biomphalaria glabrata. As the presence of a single member of that family is particularly intriguing, transcriptomic data and the recently published genome were used to explore the presence of other BgTEP related genes in B. glabrata. Ten other TEP members have been reported and classified into different subfamilies: Three complement-like factors (BgC3-1 to BgC3-3), one α-2-macroblobulin (BgA2M), two macroglobulin complement-related proteins (BgMCR1, BgMCR2), one CD109 (BgCD109), and three insect TEP (BgTEP2 to BgTEP4) in addition to the previously characterized BgTEP that we renamed BgTEP1. This is the first report on such a level of TEP diversity and of the presence of macroglobulin complement-related proteins (MCR) in mollusks. Gene structure analysis revealed alternative splicing in the highly variable region of three members (BgA2M, BgCD109, and BgTEP2) with a particularly unexpected diversity for BgTEP2. Finally, different gene expression profiles tend to indicate specific functions for such novel family members.
Collapse
|
17
|
Alpha-2-Macroglobulin, a Hypochlorite-Regulated Chaperone and Immune System Modulator. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2019; 2019:5410657. [PMID: 31428227 PMCID: PMC6679887 DOI: 10.1155/2019/5410657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-macroglobulins are ancient proteins that include monomeric, dimeric, and tetrameric family members. In humans, and many other mammals, the predominant alpha-macroglobulin is alpha-2-macroglobulin (α2M), a tetrameric protein that is constitutively abundant in biological fluids (e.g., blood plasma, cerebral spinal fluid, synovial fluid, ocular fluid, and interstitial fluid). α2M is best known for its remarkable ability to inhibit a broad spectrum of proteases, but the full gamut of its activities affects diverse biological processes. For example, α2M can stabilise and facilitate the clearance of the Alzheimer's disease-associated amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide. Additionally, α2M can influence the signalling of cytokines and growth factors including neurotrophins. The results of several studies support the idea that the functions of α2M are uniquely regulated by hypochlorite, an oxidant that is generated during inflammation, which induces the native α2M tetramer to dissociate into dimers. This review will discuss the evidence for hypochlorite-induced regulation of α2M and the possible implications of this in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration.
Collapse
|
18
|
Marino-Puertas L, Del Amo-Maestro L, Taulés M, Gomis-Rüth FX, Goulas T. Recombinant production of human α 2-macroglobulin variants and interaction studies with recombinant G-related α 2-macroglobulin binding protein and latent transforming growth factor-β 2. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9186. [PMID: 31235767 PMCID: PMC6591361 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45712-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
α2-Macroglobulins (α2Ms) regulate peptidases, hormones and cytokines. Mediated by peptidase cleavage, they transit between native, intact forms and activated, induced forms. α2Ms have been studied over decades using authentic material from primary sources, which was limited by sample heterogeneity and contaminants. Here, we developed high-yield expression systems based on transient transfection in Drosophila Schneider 2 and human Expi293F cells, which produced pure human α2M (hα2M) at ~1.0 and ~0.4 mg per liter of cell culture, respectively. In both cases, hα2M was mainly found in the induced form. Shorter hα2M variants encompassing N-/C-terminal parts were also expressed and yielded pure material at ~1.6/~1.3 and ~3.2/~4.6 mg per liter of insect or mammalian cell culture, respectively. We then analyzed the binding of recombinant and authentic hα2M to recombinant latent human transforming growth factor-β2 (pro-TGF-β2) and bacterial G-related α2M binding protein (GRAB) by surface plasmon resonance, multiple-angle laser light scattering, size-exclusion chromatography, fluorogenic labelling, gel electrophoresis and Western-blot analysis. Two GRAB molecules formed stable complexes of high affinity with native and induced authentic hα2M tetramers. The shorter recombinant hα2M variants interacted after preincubation only. In contrast, pro-TGF-β2 did not interact, probably owing to hindrance by the N-terminal latency-associated protein of the cytokine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Marino-Puertas
- Proteolysis Laboratory, Structural Biology Unit ("Maria de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Higher Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, Helix Building; Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Laura Del Amo-Maestro
- Proteolysis Laboratory, Structural Biology Unit ("Maria de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Higher Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, Helix Building; Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Marta Taulés
- Scientific and Technological Centers (CCiTUB), University of Barcelona, Lluís Solé i Sabaris, 1-3, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - F Xavier Gomis-Rüth
- Proteolysis Laboratory, Structural Biology Unit ("Maria de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Higher Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, Helix Building; Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Theodoros Goulas
- Proteolysis Laboratory, Structural Biology Unit ("Maria de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Higher Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, Helix Building; Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Human pregnancy zone protein stabilizes misfolded proteins including preeclampsia- and Alzheimer's-associated amyloid beta peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:6101-6110. [PMID: 30850528 PMCID: PMC6442606 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1817298116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy is a unique physiological state involving biological stresses that promote protein damage (misfolding) within the maternal body. Currently, little is known regarding how the maternal body copes with elevated protein misfolding in pregnancy. This is important, because the accumulation of misfolded proteins underlies many human disorders, including preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy. In this study, we show that pregnancy zone protein (PZP) efficiently inhibits the aggregation of misfolded proteins, including the amyloid beta peptide, which forms plaques in preeclampsia and in Alzheimer’s disease. We propose that up-regulation of PZP is a major maternal adaptation that helps to maintain protein homeostasis during pregnancy. Moreover, pregnancy-independent up-regulation of PZP indicates that its chaperone function could be broadly important in humans. Protein misfolding underlies the pathology of a large number of human disorders, many of which are age-related. An exception to this is preeclampsia, a leading cause of pregnancy-associated morbidity and mortality in which misfolded proteins accumulate in body fluids and the placenta. We demonstrate that pregnancy zone protein (PZP), which is dramatically elevated in maternal plasma during pregnancy, efficiently inhibits in vitro the aggregation of misfolded proteins, including the amyloid beta peptide (Aβ) that is implicated in preeclampsia as well as with Alzheimer’s disease. The mechanism by which this inhibition occurs involves the formation of stable complexes between PZP and monomeric Aβ or small soluble Aβ oligomers formed early in the aggregation pathway. The chaperone activity of PZP is more efficient than that of the closely related protein alpha-2-macroglobulin (α2M), although the chaperone activity of α2M is enhanced by inducing its dissociation into PZP-like dimers. By immunohistochemistry analysis, PZP is found primarily in extravillous trophoblasts in the placenta. In severe preeclampsia, PZP-positive extravillous trophoblasts are adjacent to extracellular plaques containing Aβ, but PZP is not abundant within extracellular plaques. Our data support the conclusion that the up-regulation of PZP during pregnancy represents a major maternal adaptation that helps to maintain extracellular proteostasis during gestation in humans. We propose that overwhelming or disrupting the chaperone function of PZP could underlie the accumulation of misfolded proteins in vivo. Attempts to characterize extracellular proteostasis in pregnancy will potentially have broad-reaching significance for understanding disease-related protein misfolding.
Collapse
|
20
|
Cook R, Sarker H, Fernandez-Patron C. Pathologies of matrix metalloproteinase-2 underactivity: a perspective on a neglected condition 1. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2018; 97:486-492. [PMID: 30457883 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2018-0525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A member of the matrix metalloproteinase family, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2, gelatinase A), has been extensively studied for its role in both normal physiology and pathological processes. Whereas most research efforts in recent years have investigated the pathologies associated with MMP-2 overactivity, the pathological mechanisms elicited by MMP-2 underactivity are less well understood. Here, we distinguish between 2 states and describe their causes: (i) MMP-2 deficiency (complete loss of MMP-2 activity) and (ii) MMP-2 insufficiency (defined as MMP-2 activity below baseline levels). Further, we review the biology of MMP-2, summarizing the current literature on MMP-2 underactivity in both mice and humans, and describe research being conducted by our lab towards improving our understanding of the pathological mechanisms elicited by MMP-2 deficiency/insufficiency. We think that this research could stimulate the discovery of new therapeutic approaches for managing pathologies associated with MMP-2 underactivity. Moreover, similar concepts could apply to other members of the matrix metalloproteinase family.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Cook
- a Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, 3-19 Medical Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Hassan Sarker
- a Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, 3-19 Medical Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Carlos Fernandez-Patron
- b Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Centre, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, 3-19 Medical Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Zorin NA, Zorina VN. Evolution of the macroglobulin protein family: from bacteria to primates. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093017060011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
22
|
Rosenfeld MA, Vasilyeva AD, Yurina LV, Bychkova AV. Oxidation of proteins: is it a programmed process? Free Radic Res 2017; 52:14-38. [DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2017.1402305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Rosenfeld
- N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexandra D. Vasilyeva
- N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Lyubov V. Yurina
- N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna V. Bychkova
- N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Rojas-Gutierrez E, Muñoz-Arenas G, Treviño S, Espinosa B, Chavez R, Rojas K, Flores G, Díaz A, Guevara J. Alzheimer's disease and metabolic syndrome: A link from oxidative stress and inflammation to neurodegeneration. Synapse 2017. [PMID: 28650104 DOI: 10.1002/syn.21990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality among the aging population. AD diagnosis is made post-mortem, and the two pathologic hallmarks, particularly evident in the end stages of the illness, are amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Currently, there is no curative treatment for AD. Additionally, there is a strong relation between oxidative stress, metabolic syndrome, and AD. The high levels of circulating lipids and glucose imbalances amplify lipid peroxidation that gradually diminishes the antioxidant systems, causing high levels of oxidative metabolism that affects cell structure, leading to neuronal damage. Accumulating evidence suggests that AD is closely related to a dysfunction of both insulin signaling and glucose metabolism in the brain, leading to an insulin-resistant brain state. Four drugs are currently used for this pathology: Three FDA-approved cholinesterase inhibitors and one NMDA receptor antagonist. However, wide varieties of antioxidants are promissory to delay or prevent the symptoms of AD and may help in treating the disease. Therefore, therapeutic efforts to achieve attenuation of oxidative stress could be beneficial in AD treatment, attenuating Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and improve neurological outcomes in AD. The term inflammaging characterizes a widely accepted paradigm that aging is accompanied by a low-grade chronic up-regulation of certain pro-inflammatory responses in the absence of overt infection, and is a highly significant risk factor for both morbidity and mortality in the elderly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Rojas-Gutierrez
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe Muñoz-Arenas
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Pue, Mexico
| | - Samuel Treviño
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Pue, Mexico
| | - Blanca Espinosa
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias-INER, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Raúl Chavez
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Karla Rojas
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Gonzalo Flores
- Instituto de Fisiología, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Pue, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Díaz
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Pue, Mexico
| | - Jorge Guevara
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Goulas T, Ksiazek M, Garcia-Ferrer I, Sochaj-Gregorczyk AM, Waligorska I, Wasylewski M, Potempa J, Gomis-Rüth FX. A structure-derived snap-trap mechanism of a multispecific serpin from the dysbiotic human oral microbiome. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:10883-10898. [PMID: 28512127 PMCID: PMC5491774 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.786533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Enduring host-microbiome relationships are based on adaptive strategies within a particular ecological niche. Tannerella forsythia is a dysbiotic member of the human oral microbiome that inhabits periodontal pockets and contributes to chronic periodontitis. To counteract endopeptidases from the host or microbial competitors, T. forsythia possesses a serpin-type proteinase inhibitor called miropin. Although serpins from animals, plants, and viruses have been widely studied, those from prokaryotes have received only limited attention. Here we show that miropin uses the serpin-type suicidal mechanism. We found that, similar to a snap trap, the protein transits from a metastable native form to a relaxed triggered or induced form after cleavage of a reactive-site target bond in an exposed reactive-center loop. The prey peptidase becomes covalently attached to the inhibitor, is dragged 75 Å apart, and is irreversibly inhibited. This coincides with a large conformational rearrangement of miropin, which inserts the segment upstream of the cleavage site as an extra β-strand in a central β-sheet. Standard serpins possess a single target bond and inhibit selected endopeptidases of particular specificity and class. In contrast, miropin uniquely blocked many serine and cysteine endopeptidases of disparate architecture and substrate specificity owing to several potential target bonds within the reactive-center loop and to plasticity in accommodating extra β-strands of variable length. Phylogenetic studies revealed a patchy distribution of bacterial serpins incompatible with a vertical descent model. This finding suggests that miropin was acquired from the host through horizontal gene transfer, perhaps facilitated by the long and intimate association of T. forsythia with the human gingiva.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Theodoros Goulas
- From the Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, María de Maeztu Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miroslaw Ksiazek
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology and
- the Department of Oral Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville School of Dentistry, Louisville, Kentucky 40202
| | - Irene Garcia-Ferrer
- From the Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, María de Maeztu Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alicja M Sochaj-Gregorczyk
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology and
- the Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland, and
| | - Irena Waligorska
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology and
| | - Marcin Wasylewski
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology and
| | - Jan Potempa
- the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology and
- the Department of Oral Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville School of Dentistry, Louisville, Kentucky 40202
| | - F Xavier Gomis-Rüth
- From the Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, María de Maeztu Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 08028 Barcelona, Spain,
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Masurier N, Arama DP, El Amri C, Lisowski V. Inhibitors of kallikrein-related peptidases: An overview. Med Res Rev 2017; 38:655-683. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Masurier
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR 5247, CNRS; Université de Montpellier, ENSCM, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques; Montpellier Cedex France
| | - Dominique P. Arama
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR 5247, CNRS; Université de Montpellier, ENSCM, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques; Montpellier Cedex France
| | - Chahrazade El Amri
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 8256; Biological Adaptation and Ageing, Integrated Cellular Ageing and Inflammation, Molecular & Functional Enzymology; Paris France
| | - Vincent Lisowski
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR 5247, CNRS; Université de Montpellier, ENSCM, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques; Montpellier Cedex France
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
α2-macroglobulins are broad-spectrum endopeptidase inhibitors, which have to date been characterised from metazoans (vertebrates and invertebrates) and Gram-negative bacteria. Their structural and biochemical properties reveal two related modes of action: the "Venus flytrap" and the "snap-trap" mechanisms. In both cases, peptidases trigger a massive conformational rearrangement of α2-macroglobulin after cutting in a highly flexible bait region, which results in their entrapment. In some homologs, a second action takes place that involves a highly reactive β-cysteinyl-γ-glutamyl thioester bond, which covalently binds cleaving peptidases and thus contributes to the further stabilization of the enzyme:inhibitor complex. Trapped peptidases are still active, but have restricted access to their substrates due to steric hindrance. In this way, the human α2-macroglobulin homolog regulates proteolysis in complex biological processes, such as nutrition, signalling, and tissue remodelling, but also defends the host organism against attacks by external toxins and other virulence factors during infection and envenomation. In parallel, it participates in several other biological functions by modifying the activity of cytokines and regulating hormones, growth factors, lipid factors and other proteins, which has a great impact on physiology. Likewise, bacterial α2-macroglobulins may participate in defence by protecting cell wall components from attacking peptidases, or in host-pathogen interactions through recognition of host peptidases and/or antimicrobial peptides. α2-macroglobulins are more widespread than initially thought and exert multifunctional roles in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, therefore, their on-going study is essential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Garcia-Ferrer
- Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, "María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park; c/Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Present address: EMBL Grenoble, 71 Avenue des Martyrs; 38042 CS 90181, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Aniebrys Marrero
- Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, "María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park; c/Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Present address: Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - F Xavier Gomis-Rüth
- Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, "María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park; c/Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Theodoros Goulas
- Proteolysis Lab, Structural Biology Unit, "María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park; c/Baldiri Reixac, 15-21, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Fyfe CD, Grinter R, Josts I, Mosbahi K, Roszak AW, Cogdell RJ, Wall DM, Burchmore RJS, Byron O, Walker D. Structure of protease-cleaved Escherichia coli α-2-macroglobulin reveals a putative mechanism of conformational activation for protease entrapment. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA. SECTION D, BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 2015; 71:1478-86. [PMID: 26143919 PMCID: PMC4498604 DOI: 10.1107/s1399004715008548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial α-2-macroglobulins have been suggested to function in defence as broad-spectrum inhibitors of host proteases that breach the outer membrane. Here, the X-ray structure of protease-cleaved Escherichia coli α-2-macroglobulin is described, which reveals a putative mechanism of activation and conformational change essential for protease inhibition. In this competitive mechanism, protease cleavage of the bait-region domain results in the untethering of an intrinsically disordered region of this domain which disrupts native interdomain interactions that maintain E. coli α-2-macroglobulin in the inactivated form. The resulting global conformational change results in entrapment of the protease and activation of the thioester bond that covalently links to the attacking protease. Owing to the similarity in structure and domain architecture of Escherichia coli α-2-macroglobulin and human α-2-macroglobulin, this protease-activation mechanism is likely to operate across the diverse members of this group.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cameron D. Fyfe
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Rhys Grinter
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Inokentijs Josts
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Khedidja Mosbahi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Aleksander W. Roszak
- WestCHEM, School of Chemistry, College of Science and Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
- Institute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Richard J. Cogdell
- Institute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Daniel M. Wall
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Olwyn Byron
- School of Life Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| | - Daniel Walker
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Sekiguchi R, Nonaka M. Evolution of the complement system in protostomes revealed by de novo transcriptome analysis of six species of Arthropoda. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 50:58-67. [PMID: 25530095 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
To elucidate the evolutionary history of the complement system in Arthropoda, de novo transcriptome analysis was performed with six species among the Chelicerata, Myriapoda, and Crustacea, and complement genes were identified based on their characteristic domain structures. Complement C3 and factor B (FB) were identified from a sea spider, a jumping spider, and a centipede, but not from a sea firefly or two millipede species. No additional complement components identifiable by their characteristic domain structures were found from any of these six species. These results together with genome sequence information for several species of the Hexapoda suggest that the common ancestor of the Arthropoda possessed a simple complement system comprising C3 and FB, and thus resembled the alternative pathway of the mammalian complement system. It was lost at least twice independently during the evolution of Arthropoda in the millipede lineage and in the common ancestor of Crustacea and Hexapoda.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reo Sekiguchi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaru Nonaka
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Rodríguez-Calvo R, Ferrán B, Alonso J, Martí-Pàmies I, Aguiló S, Calvayrac O, Rodríguez C, Martínez-González J. NR4A receptors up-regulate the antiproteinase alpha-2 macroglobulin (A2M) and modulate MMP-2 and MMP-9 in vascular smooth muscle cells. Thromb Haemost 2015; 113:1323-34. [PMID: 25809189 DOI: 10.1160/th14-07-0645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are associated with tissue remodelling and repair. In non-vascular tissues, NR4A receptors have been involved in the regulation of MMPs by transcriptional repression mechanisms. Here, we analyse alternative mechanisms involving NR4A receptors in the modulation of MMP activity in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Lentiviral overexpression of NR4A receptors (NOR-1, Nurr1 and Nur77) in human VSMC strongly decreased MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities (analysed by zymography and DQ-gelatin assays) and protein levels. NR4A receptors also down-regulated MMP-2 mRNA levels. Real-time PCR analysis evidenced that alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2M), but not other MMP inhibitors (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) were up-regulated in NR4A-transduced cells. Interestingly, A2M was expressed in human vascular tissues including the smooth muscle media layer. While NR4A receptors increased A2M expression and secretion in VSMC, NR4A knockdown significantly reduced basal A2M expression in these cells. The direct transcriptional regulation of the human A2M promoter by NR4A receptors was characterised in luciferase reporter assays, electrophoretic mobility shift assays and by chromatin immunoprecipitation, identifying a NGFI-B response element (NBRE-71/-64) essential for the NR4A-mediated induction. The blockade of A2M partially prevented the reduction of MMPs activity observed in NR4A-transduced cells. Although mouse A2M promoter was unresponsive to NR4A receptors, vascular MMP expression was attenuated in transgenic mice over-expressing human NOR-1 in VSMC challenged with lipopolysaccharide. Our results show that the pan-proteinase inhibitor A2M is expressed in the vasculature and that NR4A receptors modulate VSMC MMP activity by several mechanisms including the up-regulation of A2M.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - José Martínez-González
- José Martínez-González, Centro de Investigación Cardiovascular (CSIC-ICCC), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Avda. Sant Antoni Maria Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain, Tel.: +34 935565896, Fax: +34 935565559, E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Price DC, Fonseca DM. Genetic divergence between populations of feral and domestic forms of a mosquito disease vector assessed by transcriptomics. PeerJ 2015; 3:e807. [PMID: 25755934 PMCID: PMC4349049 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Culex pipiens, an invasive mosquito and vector of West Nile virus in the US, has two morphologically indistinguishable forms that differ dramatically in behavior and physiology. Cx. pipiens form pipiens is primarily a bird-feeding temperate mosquito, while the sub-tropical Cx. pipiens form molestus thrives in sewers and feeds on mammals. Because the feral form can diapause during the cold winters but the domestic form cannot, the two Cx. pipiens forms are allopatric in northern Europe and, although viable, hybrids are rare. Cx. pipiens form molestus has spread across all inhabited continents and hybrids of the two forms are common in the US. Here we elucidate the genes and gene families with the greatest divergence rates between these phenotypically diverged mosquito populations, and discuss them in light of their potential biological and ecological effects. After generating and assembling novel transcriptome data for each population, we performed pairwise tests for nonsynonymous divergence (Ka) of homologous coding sequences and examined gene ontology terms that were statistically over-represented in those sequences with the greatest divergence rates. We identified genes involved in digestion (serine endopeptidases), innate immunity (fibrinogens and α-macroglobulins), hemostasis (D7 salivary proteins), olfaction (odorant binding proteins) and chitin binding (peritrophic matrix proteins). By examining molecular divergence between closely related yet phenotypically divergent forms of the same species, our results provide insights into the identity of rapidly-evolving genes between incipient species. Additionally, we found that families of signal transducers, ATP synthases and transcription regulators remained identical at the amino acid level, thus constituting conserved components of the Cx. pipiens proteome. We provide a reference with which to gauge the divergence reported in this analysis by performing a comparison of transcriptome sequences from conspecific (yet allopatric) populations of another member of the Cx. pipiens complex, Cx. quinquefasciatus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana C Price
- Department of Entomology, Rutgers University , New Brunswick, NJ , USA
| | - Dina M Fonseca
- Department of Entomology, Rutgers University , New Brunswick, NJ , USA
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Batxelli-Molina I, Calvayrac-Pawlowski S, Moulin V, Lapalus M, Hem S, Laune D, Asselah T, Jardin-Watelet B. Novel α-2-macroglobulin cleaved fragments as biomarkers of early liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Future Virol 2015. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.14.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Aim: Liver biopsy is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis and staging of hepatic fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C and is now progressively replaced by noninvasive procedures. We aimed at improving α-2-macroglobulin diagnostic value for liver fibrosis by identifying new isoforms that may be specifically related to early stages of the pathology. Materials & methods: α-2-Macroglobulin isoforms were characterized in serum samples from patients with chronic hepatitis C and mild (F1) to moderate (F2) fibrosis by proteomic methods. Results: New biological 40 kDa C-terminal α-2-macroglobulin fragments were identified as potential biomarkers of early fibrosis (fold change = 1.55; p < 0.01). Conclusion: The serum concentration of α-2-macroglobulin fragments allows a better differentiation of F1 and F2 fibrosis stages than total α-2-macroglobulin isoforms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Batxelli-Molina
- SysDiag – UMR 3145 CNRS/Bio-Rad, Complex System Modeling and Engineering for Diagnosis, Cedex, France
| | | | - Véronique Moulin
- SysDiag – UMR 3145 CNRS/Bio-Rad, Complex System Modeling and Engineering for Diagnosis, Cedex, France
| | - Martine Lapalus
- Service d’Hépatologie and INSERM U773, CRB3, Université Paris Diderot, Hôpital Beaujon, Clichy, France
| | - Sonia Hem
- INRA UR1199, Laboratoire de Protéomique Fonctionnelle, Montpellier, France
| | - Daniel Laune
- SysDiag – UMR 3145 CNRS/Bio-Rad, Complex System Modeling and Engineering for Diagnosis, Cedex, France
| | - Tarik Asselah
- Service d’Hépatologie and INSERM U773, CRB3, Université Paris Diderot, Hôpital Beaujon, Clichy, France
| | - Bénédicte Jardin-Watelet
- SysDiag – UMR 3145 CNRS/Bio-Rad, Complex System Modeling and Engineering for Diagnosis, Cedex, France
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Goulas T, Garcia-Ferrer I, García-Piqué S, Sottrup-Jensen L, Gomis-Rüth FX. Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of eukaryotic α2 -macroglobulin family members modified by methylamine, proteases and glycosidases. Mol Oral Microbiol 2014; 29:354-64. [PMID: 25052482 DOI: 10.1111/omi.12069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
α2 -Macroglobulin (α2 M) has many functions in vertebrate physiology. To understand the basis of such functions, high-resolution structural models of its conformations and complexes with interacting partners are required. In an attempt to grow crystals that diffract to high or medium resolution, we isolated native human α2 M (hα2 M) and its counterpart from chicken egg white (ovostatin) from natural sources. We developed specific purification protocols, and modified the purified proteins either by deglycosylation or by conversion to their induced forms. Native proteins yielded macroscopically disordered crystals or crystals only diffracting to very low resolution (>20 Å), respectively. Optimization of native hα2 M crystals by varying chemical conditions was unsuccessful, while dehydration of native ovostatin crystals improved diffraction only slightly (10 Å). Moreover, treatment with several glycosidases hindered crystallization. Both proteins formed spherulites that were unsuitable for X-ray analysis, owing to a reduction of protein stability or an increase in sample heterogeneity. In contrast, transforming the native proteins to their induced forms by reaction either with methylamine or with peptidases (thermolysin and chymotrypsin) rendered well-shaped crystals routinely diffracting below 7 Å in a reproducible manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Goulas
- Proteolysis Laboratory, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Robert-Genthon M, Casabona MG, Neves D, Couté Y, Cicéron F, Elsen S, Dessen A, Attrée I. Unique features of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa α2-macroglobulin homolog. mBio 2013; 4:e00309-13. [PMID: 23919994 PMCID: PMC3735191 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00309-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Human pathogens frequently use protein mimicry to manipulate host cells in order to promote their survival. Here we show that the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa synthesizes a structural homolog of the human α2-macroglobulin, a large-spectrum protease inhibitor and important player of innate immunity. Small-angle X-ray scattering analysis demonstrated that the fold of P. aeruginosa MagD (PA4489) is similar to that of the human macroglobulin and undergoes a conformational modification upon binding of human neutrophil elastase. MagD synthesis is under the control of a general virulence regulatory pathway including the inner membrane sensor RetS and the RNA-binding protein RsmA, and MagD undergoes cleavage from a 165-kDa to a 100-kDa form in all clinical isolates tested. Fractionation and immunoprecipitation experiments showed that MagD is translocated to the bacterial periplasm and resides within the inner membrane in a complex with three other molecular partners, MagA, MagB, and MagF, all of them encoded by the same six-gene genetic element. Inactivation of the whole 10-kb operon on the PAO1 genome resulted in mislocalization of uncleaved, in trans-provided MagD as well as its rapid degradation. Thus, pathogenic bacteria have acquired a homolog of human macroglobulin that plays roles in host-pathogen interactions potentially through recognition of host proteases and/or antimicrobial peptides; it is thus essential for bacterial defense. IMPORTANCE The pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is multifactorial and relies on surface-associated and secreted proteins with different toxic activities. Here we show that the bacterium synthesizes a 160-kDa structural homolog of the human large-spectrum protease inhibitor α2-macroglobulin. The bacterial protein is localized in the periplasm and is associated with the inner membrane through the formation of a multimolecular complex. Its synthesis is coregulated at the posttranscriptional level with other virulence determinants, suggesting that it has a role in bacterial pathogenicity and/or in defense against the host immune system. Thus, this new P. aeruginosa macromolecular complex may represent a future target for antibacterial developments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David Neves
- Brazilian National Laboratory for Biosciences (LNBio), CNPEM, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Im SK, Yeo M, Lee KJ. Proteomic identification of proteins suggestive of immune-mediated response or neuronal degeneration in serum of achalasia patients. Gut Liver 2013; 7:411-6. [PMID: 23898380 PMCID: PMC3724028 DOI: 10.5009/gnl.2013.7.4.411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Revised: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background/Aims The primary pathophysiologic abnormality in achalasia is known to be a loss of inhibitory myenteric ganglion cells, which may result from an immune-mediated response or neuronal degeneration. The aim of this study was to identify proteins suggestive of an immune-mediated response or neuronal degeneration in the serum of achalasia patients using a proteomic analysis. Methods Blood samples were collected from five symptomatic achalasia patients and five sex- and age-matched healthy controls. Serum proteomic analysis was conducted, and the protein spots were identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight and a proteomics analyzer. The serum level of C3 was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in nine patients with achalasia and 18 sex- and age-matched healthy controls. Results Of the 658 matched protein spots, 28 spots were up-regulated over 2-fold in the serum from achalasia patients compared with that from controls. The up-regulated proteins included complement C4B5, complement C3, cyclin-dependent kinase 5, transthyretin, and alpha 2 macroglobulin. The serum levels of C3 in achalasia patients were significantly higher than those of controls. Conclusions The serum proteomic analysis of achalasia patients suggests an immune-mediated response or neuronal degeneration. Further validation studies in larger samples and the esophageal tissue of achalasia patients are required.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seon Kyo Im
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Murakami Y, Wada Y, Kobayashi H, Hasegawa M, Okamoto K, Eto M, Imamura T. The tail nick augments Aeromonas sobria serine protease (ASP) activity in plasma through retarding inhibition by α2-macroglobulin. FEBS Lett 2012; 586:3613-7. [PMID: 22971340 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2012.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
ASP is a serine protease secreted by Aeromonas sobria, a sepsis-causing bacterium, and induces sepsis-mimicking disorders through plasma protein cleavage. The pathogen also secretes nASP that has a nick in the carboxy-terminal region. Compared with single-chain ASP (sASP), nASP had near-equivalent activity for small peptide substrates but was less proteolytic. Surprisingly, nASP cleaved proteins more in plasma and was inhibited by human α(2)-macroglobulin more slowly than sASP. Retarded inhibition by α(2)-macroglobulin allows nASP to keep proteolytic activity for longer in the host and exacerbate disorders at Aeromonas sobria infection sites. nASP may be an evolutional form to augment ASP virulence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoji Murakami
- Department of Urology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Marrero A, Duquerroy S, Trapani S, Goulas T, Guevara T, Andersen GR, Navaza J, Sottrup-Jensen L, Gomis-Rüth FX. The Crystal Structure of Human α2-Macroglobulin Reveals a Unique Molecular Cage. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201108015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
37
|
Marrero A, Duquerroy S, Trapani S, Goulas T, Guevara T, Andersen GR, Navaza J, Sottrup-Jensen L, Gomis-Rüth FX. The Crystal Structure of Human α2-Macroglobulin Reveals a Unique Molecular Cage. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:3340-4. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201108015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
38
|
Panhuis TM, Broitman-Maduro G, Uhrig J, Maduro M, Reznick DN. Analysis of expressed sequence tags from the placenta of the live-bearing fish Poeciliopsis (Poeciliidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 102:352-61. [PMID: 21339338 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esr002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Matrotrophic fish in the genus Poeciliopsis (Poeciliidae) have a placenta-like structure used in postfertilization maternal provisioning of the developing embryo. To understand better the structure and function of the Poeciliopsis placenta, we derived cDNA libraries from the maternal follicular placenta of 2 matrotrophic Poeciliopsis sister species, P. turneri and P. presidionis. These species inherited their placenta from a common ancestor and represent one of 3 independent origins of placentas in Poeciliopsis. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were generated and putative function was determined using BLASTX homology searches and Gene Ontology (GO) annotation. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was used to verify placenta tissue expression of a putative candidate gene, alpha-2 macroglobulin. In total, 1956 (71.5% of the total submitted ESTs) and 924 (71.0% of the total submitted ESTs) unique transcripts were identified for the P. turneri and P. presidionis placenta, respectively. Homology search and GO annotation revealed putative genes whose products may be involved in specific transport functions of the maternal follicle. These putative genes are excellent candidates for future research on the evolution of the placenta. We discuss our results in light of the parent-offspring conflict theory of placental evolution and in terms of the Poeciliid placenta structure and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tami M Panhuis
- Department of Zoology, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH 43015, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Protease inhibitors and proteolytic signalling cascades in insects. Biochimie 2010; 92:1749-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
40
|
Boonrao M, Yodkeeree S, Ampasavate C, Anuchapreeda S, Limtrakul P. The inhibitory effect of turmeric curcuminoids on matrix metalloproteinase-3 secretion in human invasive breast carcinoma cells. Arch Pharm Res 2010; 33:989-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-010-0703-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Revised: 01/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
41
|
Goettig P, Magdolen V, Brandstetter H. Natural and synthetic inhibitors of kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs). Biochimie 2010; 92:1546-67. [PMID: 20615447 PMCID: PMC3014083 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Including the true tissue kallikrein KLK1, kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs) represent a family of fifteen mammalian serine proteases. While the physiological roles of several KLKs have been at least partially elucidated, their activation and regulation remain largely unclear. This obscurity may be related to the fact that a given KLK fulfills many different tasks in diverse fetal and adult tissues, and consequently, the timescale of some of their physiological actions varies significantly. To date, a variety of endogenous inhibitors that target distinct KLKs have been identified. Among them are the attenuating Zn(2+) ions, active site-directed proteinaceous inhibitors, such as serpins and the Kazal-type inhibitors, or the huge, unspecific compartment forming α(2)-macroglobulin. Failure of these inhibitory systems can lead to certain pathophysiological conditions. One of the most prominent examples is the Netherton syndrome, which is caused by dysfunctional domains of the Kazal-type inhibitor LEKTI-1 which fail to appropriately regulate KLKs in the skin. Small synthetic inhibitory compounds and natural polypeptidic exogenous inhibitors have been widely employed to characterize the activity and substrate specificity of KLKs and to further investigate their structures and biophysical properties. Overall, this knowledge leads not only to a better understanding of the physiological tasks of KLKs, but is also a strong fundament for the synthesis of small compound drugs and engineered biomolecules for pharmaceutical approaches. In several types of cancer, KLKs have been found to be overexpressed, which makes them clinically relevant biomarkers for prognosis and monitoring. Thus, down regulation of excessive KLK activity in cancer and in skin diseases by small inhibitor compounds may represent attractive therapeutical approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Goettig
- Division of Structural Biology, Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, Billrothstrasse 11, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Fujito NT, Sugimoto S, Nonaka M. Evolution of thioester-containing proteins revealed by cloning and characterization of their genes from a cnidarian sea anemone, Haliplanella lineate. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 34:775-84. [PMID: 20188753 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2010.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 02/18/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
To elucidate the evolutionary origin of genes encoding thioester-containing proteins (TEPs), TEP genes were isolated from a cnidarian, a sea anemone, Haliplanella lineate. Phylogenetic tree analysis of the four identified cnidarian TEP genes and various TEP genes of many metazoa, indicated that they could be classified into two subfamilies: the alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2M) subfamily encodining A2M, CD109 and insect TEPs, and the C3 subfamily encoding complement C3, C4 and C5. Two of the four cnidarian TEP genes belonged to the A2M subfamily, showing a close similarity to human A2M and CD109, respectively and thus were termed HaliA2M and HaliCD109. The other two genes belonged to the C3 subfamily, and were termed HaliC3-1 and HaliC3-2. Cnidarian TEPs retained the basic domain structure and functionally important residues for each molecule, and their mRNA were detected at different parts of the sea anemone body. These results suggest that gene duplication and subsequent functional differentiation among C3, A2M and CD109 were very ancient events predating the divergence of the cnidaria and bilateria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naoko T Fujito
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Craig-Barnes HA, Doumouras BS, Palaniyar N. Surfactant protein D interacts with alpha2-macroglobulin and increases its innate immune potential. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:13461-70. [PMID: 20207732 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.108837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Surfactant protein D (SP-D) is an innate immune collectin that recognizes microbes via its carbohydrate recognition domains, agglutinates bacteria, and forms immune complexes. During microbial infections, proteases, such as elastases, cleave the carbohydrate recognition domains and can inactivate the innate immune functions of SP-D. Host responses to counterbalance the reduction of SP-D-mediated innate immune response under these conditions are not clearly understood. We have unexpectedly identified that SP-D could interact with protein fractions containing ovomucin and ovomacroglobulin. Here, we show that SP-D interacts with human alpha(2)-macroglobulin (A2M), a protease inhibitor present in the lungs and serum. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, surface plasmon resonance, and carbohydrate competition assays, we show that SP-D interacts with A2M both in solid phase (K(D) of 7.33 nM) and in solution via lectin-carbohydrate interactions under physiological calcium conditions. Bacterial agglutination assays further show that SP-D x A2M complexes increase the ability of SP-D to agglutinate bacteria. Western blot analyses show that SP-D, but not A2M, avidly binds bacteria. Interestingly, intact and activated A2M also protect SP-D against elastase-mediated degradation, and the cleaved A2M still interacts with SP-D and is able to enhance its agglutination abilities. We also found that SP-D and A2M can interact with each other in the airway-lining fluid. Therefore, we propose that SP-D utilizes a novel mechanism in which the collectin interacts with protease inhibitor A2M to decrease its degradation and to concurrently increase its innate immune function. These interactions particularly enhance bacterial agglutination and immune complex formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hayley A Craig-Barnes
- Lung Innate Immunity Research Laboratory, Program in Physiology and Experimental Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Padhi A, Buchheim MA, Verghese B. Dynamic evolutionary pattern of α2-macroglobulin in a model organism, the zebrafish (Danio rerio). Mol Immunol 2008; 45:3312-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Accepted: 03/26/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
45
|
Mantuano E, Mukandala G, Li X, Campana WM, Gonias SL. Molecular dissection of the human alpha2-macroglobulin subunit reveals domains with antagonistic activities in cell signaling. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:19904-11. [PMID: 18499670 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m801762200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
alpha(2)-Macroglobulin (alpha(2)M) is a plasma protease inhibitor, which reversibly binds growth factors and, in its activated form, binds to low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP-1), an endocytic receptor with cell signaling activity. Because distinct domains in alpha(2)M are responsible for its various functions, we hypothesized that the overall effects of alpha(2)M on cell physiology reflect the integrated activities of multiple domains, some of which may be antagonistic. To test this hypothesis, we expressed the growth factor carrier site and the LRP-1 recognition domain (RBD) as separate GST fusion proteins (FP3 and FP6, respectively). FP6 rapidly and robustly activated Akt and ERK/MAP kinase in Schwann cells and PC12 cells. This response was blocked by LRP-1 gene silencing or by co-incubation with the LRP-1 antagonist, receptor-associated protein. The activity of FP6 also was blocked by mutating Lys(1370) and Lys(1374), which precludes LRP-1 binding. FP3 blocked activation of Akt and ERK/MAP kinase in response to nerve growth factor-beta (NGF-beta) but not FP6. In PC12 cells, FP6 promoted neurite outgrowth and expression of growth-associated protein-43, whereas FP3 antagonized the same responses when NGF-beta was added. The ability of FP6 to trigger LRP-1-dependent cell signaling in PC12 cells was reproduced by the 18-kDa RBD, isolated from plasma-purified alpha(2)M by proteolysis and chromatography. We propose that the effects of intact alpha(2)M on cell physiology reflect the degree of penetration of activities associated with different domains, such as FP3 and FP6, which may be regulated asynchronously by conformational change and by other regulatory proteins in the cellular microenvironment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Mantuano
- Department of Pathology and Anesthesiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Doan N, Gettins P. Human alpha2-macroglobulin is composed of multiple domains, as predicted by homology with complement component C3. Biochem J 2007; 407:23-30. [PMID: 17608619 PMCID: PMC2267405 DOI: 10.1042/bj20070764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Human alpha2M (alpha2-macroglobulin) and the complement components C3 and C4 are thiol ester-containing proteins that evolved from the same ancestral gene. The recent structure determination of human C3 has allowed a detailed prediction of the location of domains within human alpha2M to be made. We describe here the expression and characterization of three alpha(2)M domains predicted to be involved in the stabilization of the thiol ester in native alpha2M and in its activation upon bait region proteolysis. The three newly expressed domains are MG2 (macroglobulin domain 2), TED (thiol ester-containing domain) and CUB (complement protein subcomponents C1r/C1s, urchin embryonic growth factor and bone morphogenetic protein 1) domain. Together with the previously characterized RBD (receptor-binding domain), they represent approx. 42% of the alpha2M polypeptide. Their expression as folded domains strongly supports the predicted domain organization of alpha2M. An X-ray crystal structure of MG2 shows it to have a fibronectin type-3 fold analogous to MG1-MG8 of C3. TED is, as predicted, an alpha-helical domain. CUB is a spliced domain composed of two stretches of polypeptide that flank TED in the primary structure. In intact C3 TED interacts with RBD, where it is in direct contact with the thiol ester, and with MG2 and CUB on opposite, flanking sides. In contrast, these alpha2M domains, as isolated species, show negligible interaction with one another, suggesting that the native conformation of alpha2M, and the consequent thiol ester-stabilizing domain-domain interactions, result from additional restraints imposed by the physical linkage of these domains or by additional domains in the protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ninh Doan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, U.S.A
| | - Peter G. W. Gettins
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, U.S.A
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Kaczowka SJ, Madding LS, Epting KL, Kelly RM, Cianciolo GJ, Pizzo SV. Probing the stability of native and activated forms of alpha2-macroglobulin. Int J Biol Macromol 2007; 42:62-7. [PMID: 17996290 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2007.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2007] [Revised: 09/21/2007] [Accepted: 09/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
alpha2-Macroglobulin (alpha2M) is a 718 kDa homotetrameric proteinase inhibitor which undergoes a large conformational change upon activation. This conformational change can occur either by proteolytic attack on an approximately 40 amino acid stretch, the bait region, which results in the rupture of the four thioester bonds in alpha2M, or by direct nucleophilic attack on these thioesters by primary amines. Amine activation circumvents both bait region cleavage and protein incorporation, which occurs by proteolytic activation. These different activation methods allow for examination of the roles bait region cleavage and thioester rupture play in alpha2M stability. Differential scanning calorimetry and urea gel electrophoresis demonstrate that both bait region cleavage and covalent incorporation of protein ligands in the thioester pocket play critical roles in the stability of alpha2M complexes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Kaczowka
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Box 3712, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Jiggins FM, Kim KW. Contrasting evolutionary patterns in Drosophila immune receptors. J Mol Evol 2006; 63:769-80. [PMID: 17103056 PMCID: PMC1808192 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-006-0005-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2006] [Accepted: 08/28/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate immune system molecules that bind directly to parasites are commonly subject to strong directional natural selection, probably because they are engaged in an evolutionary arms race with parasites. We have investigated whether similar patterns of evolution are seen in components of the Drosophila immune system that bind parasite-derived molecules. In insects, TEPs (thioester-containing proteins) function as opsonins, binding to parasites and promoting their phagocytosis or encapsulation. The Drosophila melanogaster genome encodes four TEPs, three of which are upregulated after an immune challenge. We report that two of these three Drosophila genes evolve rapidly under positive selection and that, in both TepI and TepII, the "bait-like region" (also known as the variable region) shows the strongest signature of positive selection. This region may be the site of proteolytic cleavage that leads to the activation of the molecule. It is possible that the proteolytic activation of TEPs is a target of host-parasite coevolution, with parasites evolving to prevent proteolysis, which in turn favors mutations in the bait-like region that restore the response. We also sequenced three gram-negative binding proteins (GNBPs) and two immune-induced peptides with strong homology to the GNBPs. In contrast to the Tep genes, the GNBP genes are highly conserved. We discuss the reasons why different components of the immune system have such different patterns of evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francis M Jiggins
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, Scotland.
| | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Fredslund F, Jenner L, Husted LB, Nyborg J, Andersen GR, Sottrup-Jensen L. The Structure of Bovine Complement Component 3 Reveals the Basis for Thioester Function. J Mol Biol 2006; 361:115-27. [PMID: 16831446 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2006.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2006] [Revised: 06/01/2006] [Accepted: 06/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The third component of complement (C3) is a 190 kDa glycoprotein essential for eliciting the complement response. The protein consists of two polypeptide chains (alpha and beta) held together with a single disulfide bridge. The beta-chain is composed of six MG domains, one of which is shared with the alpha-chain. The disulfide bridge connecting the chains is positioned in the shared MG domain. The alpha-chain consists of the anaphylatoxin domain, three MG domains, a CUB domain, an alpha(6)/alpha(6)-barrel domain and the C-terminal C345c domain. An internal thioester in the alpha-chain of C3 (present in C4 but not in C5) is cleaved during complement activation. This mediates covalent attachment of the activated C3b to immune complexes and invading microorganisms, thereby opsonizing the target. We present the structure of bovine C3 determined at 3 Angstroms resolution. The structure shows that the ester is buried deeply between the thioester domain and the properdin binding domain, in agreement with the human structure. This domain interface is broken upon activation, allowing nucleophile access. The structure of bovine C3 clearly demonstrates that the main chain around the thioester undergoes a helical transition upon activation. This rearrangement is proposed to be the basis for the high level of reactivity of the thioester group. A strictly conserved glutamate residue is suggested to function catalytically in thioester proteins. Structure-based design of inhibitors of C3 activation may target a conserved pocket between the alpha-chain and the beta-chain of C3, which appears essential for conformational changes in C3.
Collapse
|
50
|
Denisenko OO, Zamolodchikova TS, Popykina NA, Larionova NI. Interaction between human alpha2-macroglobulin and duodenase, a serine proteinase with dual specificity. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2006; 71:658-66. [PMID: 16827658 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297906060101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Interaction between a serine proteinase from bovine duodenum and human serum alpha(2)-macroglobulin (alpha(2)-MG) was studied. alpha(2)-MG is established to be one of the most effective duodenase inhibitors. The enzyme is completely inhibited in less than 30 sec at equimolar ratio of the inhibitor and enzyme (concentration 2 x 10(-8) M). Under identical conditions, the rate of duodenase association with alpha(2)-MG is at least 2.5-fold higher than the rate of chymotrypsin association with this inhibitor. The interaction with duodenase results in proteolysis of the inhibitor subunit in the "bait region". Similarly to other proteases, duodenase in the complex with alpha(2)-MG retains the intact catalytic apparatus and ability to hydrolyze some small substrates. But the duodenase-inhibitor complex is fully inactive to proteins (bovine serum albumin). The stoichiometry of the enzyme interaction with the inhibitor is 2 : 1 (mol/mol). Based on the association rate constant and the termination time of the duodenase and alpha(2)-MG in vivo association, alpha(2)-MG is suggested to be a physiological regulator of the enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O O Denisenko
- Department of Chemical Enzymology, Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119992, Russia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|