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Metabolism and Biological Activities of 4-Methyl-Sterols. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24030451. [PMID: 30691248 PMCID: PMC6385002 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24030451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Revised: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
4,4-Dimethylsterols and 4-methylsterols are sterol biosynthetic intermediates (C4-SBIs) acting as precursors of cholesterol, ergosterol, and phytosterols. Their accumulation caused by genetic lesions or biochemical inhibition causes severe cellular and developmental phenotypes in all organisms. Functional evidence supports their role as meiosis activators or as signaling molecules in mammals or plants. Oxygenated C4-SBIs like 4-carboxysterols act in major biological processes like auxin signaling in plants and immune system development in mammals. It is the purpose of this article to point out important milestones and significant advances in the understanding of the biogenesis and biological activities of C4-SBIs.
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Debieu D, Bach J, Montesinos E, Fillinger S, Leroux P. Role of sterol 3-ketoreductase sensitivity in susceptibility to the fungicide fenhexamid in Botrytis cinerea and other phytopathogenic fungi. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2013; 69:642-651. [PMID: 23139232 DOI: 10.1002/ps.3418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 08/28/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The narrow-spectrum fungicide fenhexamid was introduced into French vineyards in 2000 to control grey mould caused by a complex of two cryptic species: Botrytis cinerea, the predominant species sensitive to fenhexamid, and Botrytis pseudocinerea, naturally resistant. Fenhexamid was suggested to inhibit the 3-ketoreductase involved at C-4 demethylation steps during ergosterol biosynthesis, as revealed by its effects on the B. cinerea sterol profile. Resistance monitoring studies have hitherto identified two B. cinerea fenhexamid-resistant phenotypes, both resulting from mutations in the erg27 gene encoding 3-ketoreductase. RESULTS The role of 3-ketoreductase sensitivity in fungal susceptibility to fenhexamid was investigated by studying sterol profiles and microsomal 3-ketoreductase in various fungal strains. Fenhexamid does inhibit B. cinerea 3-ketoreductase activity. Erg27 mutations causing amino acid substitutions in or near the transmembrane domain strongly decrease the affinity of fenhexamid for 3-ketoreductase. Fenhexamid has very low affinities for 3-ketoreductase in inherently resistant species, whether closely related to B. cinerea, like B. pseudocinerea, or more distantly related, like Nectria haematococca. CONCLUSION erg27 mutation and erg27 polymorphism may therefore contribute to the unfavourable binding of fenhexamid to its target, 3-ketoreductase, explaining the acquisition of fenhexamid resistance in B. cinerea and the narrow spectrum of this fungicide.
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Cabrera-Vivas B, González C, Meléndrez R, Martı́nez-Aguilera L, Ramı́rez JC. Theoretical study of the 4α-demethylation mechanism involved in the biosynthesis of cholesterol. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-1280(03)00013-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Gaylor JL. Membrane-bound enzymes of cholesterol synthesis from lanosterol. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 292:1139-46. [PMID: 11969204 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Debieu D, Bach J, Hugon M, Malosse C, Leroux P. The hydroxyanilide fenhexamid, a new sterol biosynthesis inhibitor fungicide efficient against the plant pathogenic fungus Botryotinia fuckeliana (Botrytis cinerea). PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2001; 57:1060-1067. [PMID: 11721524 DOI: 10.1002/ps.394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Fenhexamid, a recently developed botryticide, is shown here to inhibit sterol biosynthesis. When the fungus Botryotinia fuckeliana was grown in the presence of fenhexamid, the ergosterol content was reduced, and three 3-keto compounds, 4 alpha-methylfecosterone, fecosterone and episterone, accumulated, suggesting an inhibition of the 3-keto reductase involved in C-4 demethylation. Thus, fenhexamid belongs to a new, promising class of sterol biosynthesis inhibitors not previously used in agriculture or in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Debieu
- INRA, Unité de Phytopharmacie et Médiateurs Chimiques, 78026 Versailles, France.
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Caspi E. The mode of incorporation of C-2 hydrogen atoms of mevalonic acid into protosterols and sterols. Tetrahedron 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(01)87399-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Sanghvi A, Grassi E, Bartman C, Diven WF. Effect of detergents on in vitro 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol formation by rat liver microsomes. Lipids 1982; 17:644-9. [PMID: 7144453 DOI: 10.1007/bf02535372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Formation of 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol by rat liver microsomes was quantitated using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC/MS) operated in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. Microsomes from normal rat livers incubated for different periods were found to yield increased 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol with time. This was also true when incubations contained Tween-80, but in this instance, the rate of 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol production was lower and dependent on the concentration of Tween used. Similarly, Triton X-100, Renex-30, Kyro EOB, Cutscum, and Emulgen 911 all lowered the formation of 7 alpha-hydroxycholesterol by rat liver microsomes, whereas Triton WR-1339 stimulated its production. Analysis of data obtained from following the enzyme reaction over an extended period using an integrated Michaelis-Menten equation indicated the enzyme possesses a very significant affinity for the product (Ks greater than Kp). Similar analysis shows that Tween-80 is a noncompetitive inhibitor of the enzyme.
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Berry DJ, Chang TY. Further characterization of a Chinese hamster ovary cell mutant defective in lanosterol demethylation. Biochemistry 1982; 21:573-80. [PMID: 7066308 DOI: 10.1021/bi00532a025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Sensitive in vitro lanosterol 14 alpha- and 4 alpha-methylsterol oxidase assays, particularly suitable for cell extracts of tissue culture cells, were developed and validated. Using these assays, we showed that the biochemical lesion of mutant 215, a cholesterol-requiring Chinese hamster ovary cell auxotroph isolated and partially characterized previously [Chang, T. Y., Telakowski, C., Vanden Heuvel, W., Alberts, A. W., & Vagelos, P. R. (1977) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 74, 832-836], was localized at the 4 alpha-methylsterol oxidase enzyme system. The defect in 4 alpha-methylsterol oxidase activity in mutant 215 cells could be demonstrated by using either 4,4-dimethylcholestanol or 4 alpha-methylcholestanol as the substrate, suggesting that the enzyme systems responsible for 4 alpha-methyl- and 4,4-dimethylsterols may share a common component. However, demethylation of the C-14 alpha methyl group was found to occur at identical rates in wild-type and mutant 215, suggesting that C-14 alpha demethylation and C-4 alpha demethylation may occur by separate enzyme systems. A [3H]dihydrolanosterol incorporation experiment in intact cells of wild-type and mutant 215 supported these conclusions. Despite these results, a [14C]acetate pulse experiment indicated that [14C]lanosterol, instead of its 14C-labeled 14-demethylated sterol derivative(s), accumulated in intact cells of mutant 215. Possible implications of these findings for the mechanisms of lanosterol demethylation reactions are discussed.
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Billheimer JT, Alcorn M, Gaylor JL. Solubilization and partial purification of a microsomal 3-ketosteroid reductase of cholesterol biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 1981; 211:430-8. [PMID: 6946726 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(81)90474-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Brady D. Oxidative demethylation in sterol metabolism. Inhibition by NADH, a required cofactor. J Biol Chem 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)68640-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Brady D, Crowder R, Hayes W. Mixed function oxidases in sterol metabolism. Source of reducing equivalents. J Biol Chem 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)70352-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Willson RA, Hart FE. Effect of parenteral dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) on drug metabolizing enzyme activities in the phenobarbital pretreated rat. Biochem Pharmacol 1977; 26:902-3. [PMID: 861058 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(77)90411-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Gibbons GF, Mitropoulos KA, Pullinger CR. Lanosterol 14alpha-demethylase. The metabolism of some potential intermediates by cell-free systems from rat liver. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1976; 69:781-9. [PMID: 1267815 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(76)90943-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Gaylor JL, Miyake Y, Yamano T. Stoichiometry of 4-methyl sterol oxidase of rat liver microsomes. J Biol Chem 1975. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)40923-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Gibbons GF, Mitropoulos KA. The rôle of cytochrome P-450 in cholesterol biosynthesis. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1973; 40:267-73. [PMID: 4149283 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1973.tb03194.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Derksen A, Cohen P. Extensive Incorporation of [2-14C]Mevalonic Acid into Cholesterol Precursors by Human Platelets in Vitro. J Biol Chem 1973. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)43302-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Gaylor JL, Delwiche CV. Investigation of the multienzymic system of microsomal cholesterol biosynthesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1973; 212:122-38. [PMID: 4532473 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1973.tb47591.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Bechtold MM, Delwiche CV, Comai K, Gaylor JL. Investigation of the Component Reactions of Oxidative Sterol Demethylation. J Biol Chem 1972. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)44574-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Rahimtula AD, Gaylor JL. Investigation of the Component Reactions of Oxidative Sterol Demethylation. J Biol Chem 1972. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)45751-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Lenton JR, Hall J, Smith AR, Ghisalberti EL, Rees HH, Goad LJ, Goodwin TW. The utilization of potential phytosterol precursors by Ochromonas malhamensis. Arch Biochem Biophys 1971; 143:664-74. [PMID: 5558139 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(71)90248-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Denk H, Schenkman JB, Bacchin PG, Hutterer F, Schaffner F, Popper H. Mechanism of cholestasis. 3. Interaction of synthetic detergents with the microsomal cytochrome P-450 dependentbiotransformation system in vitro. A comparison between the effects of detergents, the effects of bile acids, and the findings in bile duct ligated rats. Exp Mol Pathol 1971; 14:263-76. [PMID: 5549076 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4800(71)90070-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Freudenthal RI, Cook C, Rosenfeld R, Wall M. The effect of different incubation systems on the in vitro metabolism of norethynodrel. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1971. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-4731(71)90011-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Moir NJ, Gaylor JL, Yanni JB. Effect of cholestyramine on the terminal reactions of sterol biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 1970; 141:465-72. [PMID: 4395692 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(70)90163-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Miller W, Gaylor J. Investigation of the Component Reactions of Oxidative Sterol Demethylation. J Biol Chem 1970. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)62765-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Miller W, Gaylor J. Investigation of the Component Reactions of Oxidative Sterol Demethylation. J Biol Chem 1970. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)62764-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Rahman R, Sharpless K, Spencer T, Clayton R. Removal of the 4,4-Dimethyl Carbons in the Enzymic Conversion of Lanosterol to Cholesterol. J Biol Chem 1970. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)63121-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Eneroth P, Gustafsson JA, Nyström E. Steroids in newborns and infants. Identification of 24,25-dihydro-delta-9(ll)-lanosterol and 4 alpha, 14 alpha-dimethyl substituted sterols among the esterified and free sterols in human meconium. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1969; 11:456-64. [PMID: 5368336 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1969.tb00795.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Moir NJ, Miller WL, Gaylor JL. Investigation of the component reactions of oxidative sterol demethylation. Alcohol dehydrogenase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1968; 33:916-21. [PMID: 5705752 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(68)90399-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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