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Martins NF, Viana MJA, Maigret B. Fungi Tryptophan Synthases: What Is the Role of the Linker Connecting the α and β Structural Domains in Hemileia vastatrix TRPS? A Molecular Dynamics Investigation. Molecules 2024; 29:756. [PMID: 38398508 PMCID: PMC10893352 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29040756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan synthase (TRPS) is a complex enzyme responsible for tryptophan biosynthesis. It occurs in bacteria, plants, and fungi as an αββα heterotetramer. Although encoded by independent genes in bacteria and plants, in fungi, TRPS is generated by a single gene that concurrently expresses the α and β entities, which are linked by an elongated peculiar segment. We conducted 1 µs all-atom molecular dynamics simulations on Hemileia vastatrix TRPS to address two questions: (i) the role of the linker segment and (ii) the comparative mode of action. Since there is not an experimental structure, we started our simulations with homology modeling. Based on the results, it seems that TRPS makes use of an already-existing tunnel that can spontaneously move the indole moiety from the α catalytic pocket to the β one. Such behavior was completely disrupted in the simulation without the linker. In light of these results and the αβ dimer's low stability, the full-working TRPS single genes might be the result of a particular evolution. Considering the significant losses that Hemileia vastatrix causes to coffee plantations, our next course of action will be to use the TRPS to look for substances that can block tryptophan production and therefore control the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália F Martins
- EMBRAPA Agroindústria Tropical, Planalto do Pici, Fortaleza 60511-110, CE, Brazil
| | - Marcos J A Viana
- EMBRAPA Agroindústria Tropical, Planalto do Pici, Fortaleza 60511-110, CE, Brazil
| | - Bernard Maigret
- LORIA, UMR 7504 CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 54000 Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France
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Zhou Y, Zhang C, Zhang L, Ye Q, Liu N, Wang M, Long G, Fan W, Long M, Wing RA. Gene fusion as an important mechanism to generate new genes in the genus Oryza. Genome Biol 2022; 23:130. [PMID: 35706016 PMCID: PMC9199173 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-022-02696-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Events of gene fusion have been reported in several organisms. However, the general role of gene fusion as part of new gene origination remains unknown. RESULTS We conduct genome-wide interrogations of four Oryza genomes by designing and implementing novel pipelines to detect fusion genes. Based on the phylogeny of ten plant species, we detect 310 fusion genes across four Oryza species. The estimated rate of origination of fusion genes in the Oryza genus is as high as 63 fusion genes per species per million years, which is fixed at 16 fusion genes per species per million years and much higher than that in flies. By RNA sequencing analysis, we find more than 44% of the fusion genes are expressed and 90% of gene pairs show strong signals of purifying selection. Further analysis of CRISPR/Cas9 knockout lines indicates that newly formed fusion genes regulate phenotype traits including seed germination, shoot length and root length, suggesting the functional significance of these genes. CONCLUSIONS We detect new fusion genes that may drive phenotype evolution in Oryza. This study provides novel insights into the genome evolution of Oryza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Zhou
- Germplasm Bank of Wild species, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Chengjun Zhang
- Germplasm Bank of Wild species, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China.
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Chicago, 1101 E. 57th Street, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Chicago, 1101 E. 57th Street, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
- Chinese Institute for Brain Research, (CIBR), Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Qiannan Ye
- Germplasm Bank of Wild species, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Ningyawen Liu
- Germplasm Bank of Wild species, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Science, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Muhua Wang
- Arizona Genomics Institute, School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China
| | - Guangqiang Long
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal Plant Biology of Yunnan Province, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Wei Fan
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal Plant Biology of Yunnan Province, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650201, China
| | - Manyuan Long
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Chicago, 1101 E. 57th Street, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
| | - Rod A Wing
- Arizona Genomics Institute, School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
- Center for Desert Agriculture, King Abdullah University of Science & Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
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3
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Kothe E, Kothe HW, Specht CA, Novotny CP, Ullrich RC. TheFlr1Gene, A Useful System for Rapid Screening of Tryptophan Auxotrophs inSchizophyllum Commune. Mycologia 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/00275514.1993.12026289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Kothe
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | - Hans W. Kothe
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | - Charles A. Specht
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | - Charles P. Novotny
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | - Robert C. Ullrich
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405
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4
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Gupta A, Patil S, Vijayakumar R, Kondabagil K. The Polyphyletic Origins of Primase-Helicase Bifunctional Proteins. J Mol Evol 2017; 85:188-204. [PMID: 29143083 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-017-9816-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We studied the evolutionary relationships of different primase-helicase bifunctional proteins, found mostly in viruses, virophages, plasmids, and organellar genomes, by phylogeny and correlation analysis. Our study suggests independent origins of primase-helicase bifunctional proteins resulting from multiple fusion events between genes encoding primase and helicase domains of different families. The correlation analysis further indicated strong functional dependencies of domains in the bifunctional proteins that are part of smaller genomes and plasmids. Bifunctional proteins found in some bacterial genomes exhibited weak coevolution probably suggesting that these are the non-functional remnants of the proteins acquired via horizontal transfer. We have put forward possible scenarios for the origin of primase-helicase bifunctional proteins in large eukaryotic DNA viruses and virophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Gupta
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Supriya Patil
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Ramya Vijayakumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Kiran Kondabagil
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India.
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5
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Abstract
Years of meticulous curation of scientific literature and increasingly reliable computational predictions have resulted in creation of vast databases of protein interaction data. Over the years, these repositories have become a basic framework in which experiments are analyzed and new directions of research are explored. Here we present an overview of the most widely used protein-protein interaction databases and the methods they employ to gather, combine, and predict interactions. We also point out the trade-off between comprehensiveness and accuracy and the main pitfall scientists have to be aware before adopting protein interaction databases in any single-gene or genome-wide analysis.
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6
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Ng SK, Tan SH. DISCOVERING PROTEIN–PROTEIN INTERACTIONS. J Bioinform Comput Biol 2011; 1:711-41. [PMID: 15290761 DOI: 10.1142/s0219720004000600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2003] [Revised: 12/12/2003] [Accepted: 12/13/2003] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The ongoing genomics and proteomics efforts have helped identify many new genes and proteins in living organisms. However, simply knowing the existence of genes and proteins does not tell us much about the biological processes in which they participate. Many major biological processes are controlled by protein interaction networks. A comprehensive description of protein–protein interactions is therefore necessary to understand the genetic program of life. In this tutorial, we provide an overview of the various current high-throughput methods for discovering protein–protein interactions, covering both the conventional experimental methods and new computational approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- See-Kiong Ng
- Knowledge Discovery Department, Institute for Infocomm Research, 21 Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Singapore 119613, Singapore.
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7
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Ireland C, Peekhaus N, Lu P, Sangari R, Zhang A, Masurekar P, An Z. The tryptophan synthetase gene TRP1 of Nodulisporium sp.: molecular characterization and its relation to nodulisporic acid A production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2008; 79:451-9. [PMID: 18389234 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-008-1440-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2007] [Revised: 02/26/2008] [Accepted: 02/29/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Nodulisporic acid A (NAA), an insecticidal indole diterpene, is produced by the fungus Nodulisporium sp. Since indole-3-glycerolphosphate is the precursor of the indole moiety of NAA, it is suggested that the activity of tryptophan synthetase may play a role in NAA biosynthesis. To investigate this hypothesis, the tryptophan synthetase gene TRP1 of Nodulisporium sp. was cloned and characterized. The gene consists of three introns of 146, 68, and 57 bp. The four exons encode a protein of 712 amino acids, the sequence of which is highly homologous to that of other fungal tryptophan synthetase proteins. The transcription initiation site was mapped 66 bp upstream to the ATG, and the polyA tail attachment site is 169 bp downstream to the translation stop codon. Replacement of the N-terminal half of the gene with a hygromycin selection marker yielded mutants with the tryptophan auxotroph/hygromycin-resistance (trp(-)/hyr) phenotype. The TRP1 mutants required a high concentration of tryptophan supplement in solid medium (10 mM) to sustain minimal growth and failed to produce NAA in the production medium (FFL-CAM) supplemented with high concentrations of tryptophan.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ireland
- Merck Research Laboratories, PO Box 2000, RY80Y-325, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA
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8
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Harrington ED, Jensen LJ, Bork P. Predicting biological networks from genomic data. FEBS Lett 2008; 582:1251-8. [PMID: 18294967 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2008.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2008] [Accepted: 02/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Continuing improvements in DNA sequencing technologies are providing us with vast amounts of genomic data from an ever-widening range of organisms. The resulting challenge for bioinformatics is to interpret this deluge of data and place it back into its biological context. Biological networks provide a conceptual framework with which we can describe part of this context, namely the different interactions that occur between the molecular components of a cell. Here, we review the computational methods available to predict biological networks from genomic sequence data and discuss how they relate to high-throughput experimental methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eoghan D Harrington
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, D-69117 Heidelberg, Germany
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9
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Abstract
The era of genomics has opened new possibilities for the computational prediction of protein function. In particular, the comparison of fully sequenced genomes allows us to investigate the so-called genomic context of a gene, which includes its chromosomal positioning relative to other genes as well as its evolutionary record among the genomes considered. This information can be exploited to find functionally interacting partners for a protein of unknown function and thus obtain information on the biological process in which it is playing a role. Such comparative genomics-based techniques are increasingly being used in the process of genome annotation and in the development of testable working hypothesis.
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10
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Lee D, Redfern O, Orengo C. Predicting protein function from sequence and structure. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2007; 8:995-1005. [PMID: 18037900 DOI: 10.1038/nrm2281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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11
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Miles EW. Structural basis for catalysis by tryptophan synthase. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 64:93-172. [PMID: 2053470 DOI: 10.1002/9780470123102.ch3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E W Miles
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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12
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Song JL, Li J, Huang YS, Chuang DT. Encapsulation of an 86-kDa assembly intermediate inside the cavities of GroEL and its single-ring variant SR1 by GroES. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:2515-21. [PMID: 12431983 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m209705200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We described previously that during the assembly of the alpha(2)beta(2) heterotetramer of human mitochondrial branched-chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKD), chaperonins GroEL/GroES interact with the kinetically trapped heterodimeric (alphabeta) intermediate to facilitate conversion of the latter to the native BCKD heterotetramer. Here, we show that the 86-kDa heterodimeric intermediate possesses a native-like conformation as judged by its binding to a fluorescent probe 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonate. This large heterodimeric intermediate is accommodated as an entity inside cavities of GroEL and its single-ring variant SR1 and is encapsulated by GroES as indicated by the resistance of the heterodimer to tryptic digestion. The SR1-alphabeta-GroES complex is isolated as a stable single species by gel filtration in the presence of Mg-ATP. In contrast, an unfolded BCKD fusion protein of similar size, which also resides in the GroEL or SR1 cavity, is too large to be capped by GroES. The cis-capping mechanism is consistent with the high level of BCKD activity recovered with the GroEL-alphabeta complex, GroES, and Mg-ATP. The 86-kDa native-like heterodimeric intermediate in the BCKD assembly pathway represents the largest protein substrate known to fit inside the GroEL cis cavity underneath GroES, which significantly exceeds the current size limit of 57 kDa established for unfolded proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiu-Li Song
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas 75390, USA
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13
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Innes D, Beacham IR, Burns DM. The role of the intracellular inhibitor of periplasmic UDP-sugar hydrolase (5'-nucleotidase) in Escherichia coli: cytoplasmic localisation of 5'-nucleotidase is conditionally lethal. J Basic Microbiol 2002; 41:329-37. [PMID: 11802543 DOI: 10.1002/1521-4028(200112)41:6<329::aid-jobm329>3.0.co;2-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
E. coli UshA, a bifunctional enzyme with UDP-sugar hydrolase and 5'-nucleotidase activities, is secreted to the periplasm but has a specific protein inhibitor located in the cytoplasm. It has been previously suggested that some 5'-nucleotidase, or a folded domain of this enzyme, may be active in the cytoplasm prior to export. If true, the intracellular inhibitor may have a role in protecting the cell from the likely deleterious effects of any intracellular UshA activity. Using deletion mutagenesis to remove the UshA signal peptide, we have shown that the resulting UshA derivative is an active cytoplasmic 5'-nucleotidase, and causes conditional lethality. Our results support the hypothesis that the physiological role of the UshA inhibitor is to protect the intracellular nucleotide pool from any cytoplasmic 5'-nucleotidase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Innes
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Qld. 4111, Australia
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14
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Schroder W, Burger M, Edwards C, Douglas M, Innes D, Beacham IR, Burns DM. The Escherichia coli orthologue of the Salmonella ushB gene (ushB(c)) produces neither UDP-sugar hydrolase activity nor detectable protein, but has an identical sequence to that of Escherichia coli cdh. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001; 203:63-8. [PMID: 11557141 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10821.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella ushB, which encodes a membrane-bound UDP-sugar hydrolase, has an Escherichia coli orthologue (ushB(c)) which does not detectably produce this activity. In this report, we show that ushB(c) does not produce any detectable protein either, despite being transcribed normally. Remarkably, ushB(c) is shown to have 100% sequence identity with E. coli cdh, previously characterised as encoding an active CDP-diglyceride hydrolase, an apparent contradiction with implications regarding enzyme evolution. We suggest that a useful gene designation is cdh (ushB(c)) rather than either ushB(c) or cdh, alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Schroder
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
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15
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Enright AJ, Iliopoulos I, Kyrpides NC, Ouzounis CA. Protein interaction maps for complete genomes based on gene fusion events. Nature 1999; 402:86-90. [PMID: 10573422 DOI: 10.1038/47056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 681] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A large-scale effort to measure, detect and analyse protein-protein interactions using experimental methods is under way. These include biochemistry such as co-immunoprecipitation or crosslinking, molecular biology such as the two-hybrid system or phage display, and genetics such as unlinked noncomplementing mutant detection. Using the two-hybrid system, an international effort to analyse the complete yeast genome is in progress. Evidently, all these approaches are tedious, labour intensive and inaccurate. From a computational perspective, the question is how can we predict that two proteins interact from structure or sequence alone. Here we present a method that identifies gene-fusion events in complete genomes, solely based on sequence comparison. Because there must be selective pressure for certain genes to be fused over the course of evolution, we are able to predict functional associations of proteins. We show that 215 genes or proteins in the complete genomes of Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae and Methanococcus jannaschii are involved in 64 unique fusion events. The approach is general, and can be applied even to genes of unknown function.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Enright
- Computational Genomics Group, Research Programme, The European Bioinformatics Institute, EMBL Cambridge Outstation, UK
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16
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Yee MC, Horn V, Yanofsky C. On the role of helix 0 of the tryptophan synthetase alpha chain of Escherichia coli. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:14754-63. [PMID: 8662916 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.25.14754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of helix 0 of the alpha chain (TrpA) of the tryptophan synthetase alpha2beta2 multi-functional enzyme complex of Escherichia coli was examined by deleting amino-terminal residues 2-6, 2-11, or 2-19 of TrpA. Selected substitutions were also introduced at TrpA positions 2-6. The altered genes encoding these polypeptides were overexpressed from a foreign promoter on a multicopy plasmid and following insertion at their normal chromosomal location. Each deletion polypeptide was functional in vivo. However all appeared to be somewhat more labile and insoluble and less active enzymatically than wild type TrpA. The deletion polypeptides were overproduced and solubilized from cell debris by denaturation and refolding. Several were partially purified and assayed in various reactions in the presence of tryptophan synthetase beta2 (TrpB). The purified TrpADelta2-6 and TrpADelta2-11 deletion polypeptides had low activity in both the indole + serine --> tryptophan reaction and the indoleglycerol phosphate + serine --> tryptophan reaction. Poor activity in each reaction was partly due to reduced association of TrpA with TrpB. The addition of the TrpA ligands, alpha-glycerophosphate or indoleglycerol phosphate, during catalysis of the indole + serine --> tryptophan reaction increased association and activity. These findings suggest that removal of helix 0 of TrpA decreases TrpA-TrpB association as well as the activity of the TrpA active site. Alignment of the TrpA sequences from different species indicates that several lack part or all of helix 0. In some of these polypeptides, extra residues at the carboxyl end may substitute for helix 0.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Yee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305-5020, USA
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17
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A polyprotein precursor of two mitochondrial enzymes in Neurospora crassa. Gene structure and precursor processing. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)37179-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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18
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Yanofsky C, Yee M, Horn V. Partial revertants of tryptophan synthetase alpha chain active site mutant Asp60–>Asn. J Biol Chem 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)53084-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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19
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Coggins JR. Deletions, fusions and domain rearrangements. Curr Opin Biotechnol 1991; 2:576-81. [PMID: 1367678 DOI: 10.1016/0958-1669(91)90083-h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The techniques of protein engineering are proving to be powerful analytical tools for the study of the structure and function of complex multidomain proteins. In particular, the overexpression of individual functional modules is providing proteins for three-dimensional structural analyses. Progress is also being made in the design and construction of novel multidomain proteins with potential therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Coggins
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK
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