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Kawamura S, Tachibanaki S. Molecular basis of rod and cone differences. Prog Retin Eye Res 2021; 90:101040. [PMID: 34974196 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.101040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In the vertebrate retina, rods and cones both detect light, but they are different in functional aspects such as light sensitivity and time resolution, for example, and in some of cell biological aspects. For functional aspects, both photoreceptors are known to share a common mechanism, phototransduction cascade, consisting of a series of enzyme reactions to convert a photon-capture signal to an electrical signal. To understand the mechanisms of the functional differences between rods and cones at the molecular level, we compared biochemically each of the reactions in the phototransduction cascade between rods and cones using the cells isolated and purified from carp retina. Although proteins in the cascade are functionally similar between rods and cones, their activities together with their expression levels are mostly different between these photoreceptors. In general, reactions to generate a response are slightly less effective, as a total, in cones than in rods, but each of the reactions for termination and recovery of a response are much more effective in cones. These findings explain lower light sensitivity and briefer light responses in cones than in rods. In addition, our considerations suggest that a Ca2+-binding protein, S-modulin or recoverin, has a currently unnoticed role in shaping light responses. With comparison of the expression levels of proteins and/or mRNAs using purified cells, several proteins were found to be specifically or predominantly expressed in cones. These proteins would be of interest for future studies on the difference between rods and cones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Kawamura
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Yamada-oka 1-3, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan; Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Yamada-oka 1-3, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Shuji Tachibanaki
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Yamada-oka 1-3, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan; Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Yamada-oka 1-3, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
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2
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Abstract
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid that is not incorporated into protein but is abundant in retina. Schiff base adducts that form nonenzymatically and reversibly from reactions between taurine and vitamin A aldehyde (A1T) are increased under conditions in which the visual chromophore 11-cis-retinal is more abundant. These settings include black versus albino mice, dark-adapted versus light-adapted mice, and mice expressing the Rpe65-Leu450 versus Rpe65-Met450 variant. Conversely, A1T is less abundant in mouse models deficient in 11-cis-retinal. As an amphiphile, protonated A1T may serve to facilitate retinoid trafficking and could constitute a small-molecule reserve of mobilizable 11-cis-retinal in photoreceptor cells. Visual pigment consists of opsin covalently linked to the vitamin A-derived chromophore, 11-cis-retinaldehyde. Photon absorption causes the chromophore to isomerize from the 11-cis- to all-trans-retinal configuration. Continued light sensitivity necessitates the regeneration of 11-cis-retinal via a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps within the visual cycle. During this process, vitamin A aldehyde is shepherded within photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelial cells to facilitate retinoid trafficking, to prevent nonspecific reactivity, and to conserve the 11-cis configuration. Here we show that redundancy in this system is provided by a protonated Schiff base adduct of retinaldehyde and taurine (A1-taurine, A1T) that forms reversibly by nonenzymatic reaction. A1T was present as 9-cis, 11-cis, 13-cis, and all-trans isomers, and the total levels were higher in neural retina than in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). A1T was also more abundant under conditions in which 11-cis-retinaldehyde was higher; this included black versus albino mice, dark-adapted versus light-adapted mice, and mice carrying the Rpe65-Leu450 versus Rpe65-450Met variant. Taurine levels paralleled these differences in A1T. Moreover, A1T was substantially reduced in mice deficient in the Rpe65 isomerase and in mice deficient in cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein; in these models the production of 11-cis-retinal is compromised. A1T is an amphiphilic small molecule that may represent a mechanism for escorting retinaldehyde. The transient Schiff base conjugate that the primary amine of taurine forms with retinaldehyde would readily hydrolyze to release the retinoid and thus may embody a pool of 11-cis-retinal that can be marshalled in photoreceptor cells.
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Abstract
The visual phototransduction cascade begins with a cis-trans photoisomerization of a retinylidene chromophore associated with the visual pigments of rod and cone photoreceptors. Visual opsins release their all-trans-retinal chromophore following photoactivation, which necessitates the existence of pathways that produce 11-cis-retinal for continued formation of visual pigments and sustained vision. Proteins in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a cell layer adjacent to the photoreceptor outer segments, form the well-established "dark" regeneration pathway known as the classical visual cycle. This pathway is sufficient to maintain continuous rod function and support cone photoreceptors as well although its throughput has to be augmented by additional mechanism(s) to maintain pigment levels in the face of high rates of photon capture. Recent studies indicate that the classical visual cycle works together with light-dependent processes in both the RPE and neural retina to ensure adequate 11-cis-retinal production under natural illuminances that can span ten orders of magnitude. Further elucidation of the interplay between these complementary systems is fundamental to understanding how cone-mediated vision is sustained in vivo. Here, we describe recent advances in understanding how 11-cis-retinal is synthesized via light-dependent mechanisms.
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Zhang J, Choi EH, Tworak A, Salom D, Leinonen H, Sander CL, Hoang TV, Handa JT, Blackshaw S, Palczewska G, Kiser PD, Palczewski K. Photic generation of 11- cis-retinal in bovine retinal pigment epithelium. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:19137-19154. [PMID: 31694912 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoisomerization of the 11-cis-retinal chromophore of rod and cone visual pigments to an all-trans-configuration is the initiating event for vision in vertebrates. The regeneration of 11-cis-retinal, necessary for sustained visual function, is an endergonic process normally conducted by specialized enzyme systems. However, 11-cis-retinal also can be formed through reverse photoisomerization from all-trans-retinal. A nonvisual opsin known as retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)-retinal G-protein-coupled receptor (RGR) was previously shown to mediate visual chromophore regeneration in photic conditions, but conflicting results have cast doubt on its role as a photoisomerase. Here, we describe high-level production of 11-cis-retinal from RPE membranes stimulated by illumination at a narrow band of wavelengths. This activity was associated with RGR and enhanced by cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein (CRALBP), which binds the 11-cis-retinal produced by RGR and prevents its re-isomerization to all-trans-retinal. The activity was recapitulated with cells heterologously expressing RGR and with purified recombinant RGR. Using an RGR variant, K255A, we confirmed that a Schiff base linkage at Lys-255 is critical for substrate binding and isomerization. Single-cell RNA-Seq analysis of the retina and RPE tissue confirmed that RGR is expressed in human and bovine RPE and Müller glia, whereas mouse RGR is expressed in RPE but not in Müller glia. These results provide key insights into the mechanisms of physiological retinoid photoisomerization and suggest a novel mechanism by which RGR, in concert with CRALBP, regenerates the visual chromophore in the RPE under sustained light conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianye Zhang
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
| | - Elliot H Choi
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697.,Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
| | - Aleksander Tworak
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
| | - David Salom
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
| | - Henri Leinonen
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
| | - Christopher L Sander
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697.,Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
| | - Thanh V Hoang
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - James T Handa
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | - Seth Blackshaw
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205.,Department of Ophthalmology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287
| | | | - Philip D Kiser
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, California 92697.,Research Service, Veterans Affairs Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, California 90822
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
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Kaylor JJ, Xu T, Ingram NT, Tsan A, Hakobyan H, Fain GL, Travis GH. Blue light regenerates functional visual pigments in mammals through a retinyl-phospholipid intermediate. Nat Commun 2017; 8:16. [PMID: 28473692 PMCID: PMC5432035 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-00018-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The light absorbing chromophore in opsin visual pigments is the protonated Schiff base of 11-cis-retinaldehyde (11cRAL). Absorption of a photon isomerizes 11cRAL to all-trans-retinaldehyde (atRAL), briefly activating the pigment before it dissociates. Light sensitivity is restored when apo-opsin combines with another 11cRAL to form a new visual pigment. Conversion of atRAL to 11cRAL is carried out by enzyme pathways in neighboring cells. Here we show that blue (450-nm) light converts atRAL specifically to 11cRAL through a retinyl-phospholipid intermediate in photoreceptor membranes. The quantum efficiency of this photoconversion is similar to rhodopsin. Photoreceptor membranes synthesize 11cRAL chromophore faster under blue light than in darkness. Live mice regenerate rhodopsin more rapidly in blue light. Finally, whole retinas and isolated cone cells show increased photosensitivity following exposure to blue light. These results indicate that light contributes to visual-pigment renewal in mammalian rods and cones through a non-enzymatic process involving retinyl-phospholipids. It is currently thought that visual pigments in vertebrate photoreceptors are regenerated exclusively through enzymatic cycles. Here the authors show that mammalian photoreceptors also regenerate opsin pigments in light through photoisomerization of N-ret-PE (N-retinylidene-phosphatidylethanolamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna J Kaylor
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Tongzhou Xu
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA.,Molecular, Cellular and Integrative Physiology Graduate Program, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Norianne T Ingram
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA.,Molecular, Cellular and Integrative Physiology Graduate Program, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Avian Tsan
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Hayk Hakobyan
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Gordon L Fain
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA.,Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA
| | - Gabriel H Travis
- Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA. .,Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, 90095, USA.
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6
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Metzler DE, Metzler CM, Sauke DJ. Light and Life. Biochemistry 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-012492543-4/50026-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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8
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Wassall SR, Stillwell W. Interactions of retinoids with phospholipid membranes: electron spin resonance. Methods Enzymol 1990; 189:383-94. [PMID: 1963467 DOI: 10.1016/0076-6879(90)89312-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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9
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Tanie H, Ohba K, Sakurai M, Inoue Y, Chûjô R. A Model Study of Rhodopsin Regeneration in Visual Cell. Photoisomerization of all-trans Retinal in Phosphatidylcholine Vesicles. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 1989. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.62.2589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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10
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Abstract
Weanling, male albino mice were placed on a vitamin A-free diet for three months to deplete their vitamin A stores. The vitamin A-deficient mice were injected intraperitoneally with all-trans 3-dehydroretinol. 3-dehydroretinol was rapidly incorporated into the liver as a fatty acid ester. The chromophore of visual pigment increased gradually and reached a normal level 13 days after the injection. 3-Dehydroretinal accounted for 95% of the total chromophore in the retina. The high proportion of 3-dehydroretinal was observed also in the long-term experiment which was continued for six weeks with the injection of 3-dehydroretinol once a week. When the animal was injected with a mixture of 3-dehydroretinol and retinol, the ratio of dehydroretinal/retinal in the retina was far lower than the ratio of dehydroretinol/retinol in the liver. These results indicate that 3-dehydroretinol is not converted to retinol in mouse and is used less efficiently than retinol for the chromophore of visual pigment. The synthesis of visual pigment was observed even when the animal was kept in complete darkness after the injection of all-trans 3-dehydroretinol. This fact indicates that light is not required for the production of 11-cis chromophore of visual pigment.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Suzuki
- Department of Pharmacology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Japan
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11
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Pepperberg DR, Anderson SM, Mangini NJ. Interaction of visual pigment with G-protein: effects of bleaching in native and reconstituted ROS preparations. Exp Eye Res 1987; 45:141-55. [PMID: 3115804 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-4835(87)80085-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Native and reconstituted preparations of bullfrog rod outer segment (ROS) membranes were analysed for the binding of the alpha and beta subunits of G-protein. Following incubation at 22-28 degrees C under varying conditions of illumination and chemical treatment, preparations were chilled and extracted with hypotonic medium lacking-vs.-containing GTP (H and HG extracts, respectively). The extent of binding of G alpha,beta ('percentage G bound') was determined by measurement of the relative abundance of G alpha, beta in the H and HG extracts. The addition of G to unbleached, G-depleted membranes (D-ROS) yielded relatively little binding of the G (14 +/- 13%). G reintroduced at congruent to 1 min vs. congruent to 90 min after major bleaching yielded, respectively, levels of binding of 88 +/- 8% and 24 +/- 8%. Native G, extracted at congruent to 90 min post-bleach and added to freshly bleached D-ROS, exhibited binding exceeding that in the parent (bleached +90 min) sample. Supplementation of reconstituted suspensions with all-trans retinal, and subsequent incubation in darkness, yielded 30-35% G-binding; similar treatment with 11-cis retinal yielded binding in the range of 0-32%. Upon irradiation, suspensions previously supplemented with either isomer exhibited approximately 60% binding. Incubation with 11-cis retinal had no substantial effect on the condition of tight binding observed shortly after bleaching. The data are discussed in relation to previous studies of visual pigment bleaching and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Pepperberg
- Lions of Illinois Eye Research Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago 60612
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12
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Bridges CD, Alvarez RA. The visual cycle operates via an isomerase acting on all-trans retinol in the pigment epithelium. Science 1987; 236:1678-80. [PMID: 3603006 DOI: 10.1126/science.3603006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Thirty years have elapsed since Wald and his colleagues showed that 11-cis retinal was isomerized to all-trans when rhodopsin was bleached, yet little has been understood about the reverse process that generates 11-cis retinal for rhodopsin regeneration. It is not known whether the isomerization is enzyme-mediated, whether it occurs in the pigment epithelium or in the retina, or whether retinal, retinol, or a retinyl ester is the vitamin A compound that is isomerized. Radiolabeled all-trans retinol and high-performance liquid chromatography have now been used to demonstrate the existence of an eye-specific, membrane-bound enzyme (retinol isomerase) that converts all-trans to 11-cis retinol in the dark. Retinol isomerase is concentrated in the pigment epithelium; this localization clarifies the role of this tissue in rhodopsin regeneration and explains the need to transfer all-trans retinol from the rod outer segments to the pigment epithelium during the visual cycle.
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13
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Kawaguchi T, Hamanaka T, Kito Y. Kinetic study of transfer of 11-cis-Retinal between rod outer segment membranes using regeneration of rhodopsin. Biophys Chem 1986; 24:5-12. [PMID: 17007793 DOI: 10.1016/0301-4622(86)85053-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/1985] [Revised: 01/16/1986] [Accepted: 01/23/1986] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The present study demonstrates some important facts on the regeneration of rhodopsin in rod outer segment membranes. 11-cis-Retinal added to a rod outer segment membrane suspension did not react directly with opsin but was rapidly solubilized into membranes and then recombined with opsin in the membrane. It was also revealed that the regeneration of rhodopsin was perturbed by the formation of retinylidene Schiff base with phosphatidylethanolamine in rod outer segment membranes, which decreased with increasing temperature. The activation energy of rhodopsin regeneration in rod outer segment membranes was 18.7 kcal/mol, being smaller than the value of 22 kcal/mol in 1% digitonin solution. 11-cis-Retinal could be found to transfer relatively fast (tau-1/k(1) R 10(3) s) between rod outer segment membranes by using the regeneration of rhodopsin. It was demonstrated that the kinetic measurement for the transport of membrane-soluble molecules such as retinal between membranes could be perform ed with ease and precisely by the method described in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kawaguchi
- Department of Biophysical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560, Japan
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14
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Navon SE, Fung BK. Characterization of transducin from bovine retinal rod outer segments. Mechanism and effects of cholera toxin-catalyzed ADP-ribosylation. J Biol Chem 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(20)82197-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Sakurai M, Shirota O, Inoue Y, Chûjô R. A MODEL STUDY OF REGENERATION PROCESS IN RHODOPSIN VISUAL CYCLE. CHEM LETT 1984. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.1984.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Percy AK, Moore JF, Carson MA, Waechter CJ. Characterization of brain phosphatidylserine decarboxylase: localization in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Arch Biochem Biophys 1983; 223:484-94. [PMID: 6859873 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(83)90613-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A membranous fraction from calf brain, sedimenting at 10,000g, catalyzes the decarboxylation of exogenous phosphatidyl[14C]serine presented in an aqueous dispersion in detergent. The product formed by the enzymatic decarboxylation reaction is chemically and chromatographically identical to phosphatidyl[14C]ethanolamine. The calf brain decarboxylase activity: (1) did not require divalent cations; (2) was optimally active at neutral pH; (3) exhibited maximal activity in the presence of 0.1% Cutscum or sodium taurocholate; (4) was inhibited by hydroxylamine or p-hydroxymercuribenzoate; and (5) has an apparent Km = 2.4 mM for the phospholipid substrate. When this fraction was further separated by metrizamide density centrifugation, 90% of the phosphatidylserine decarboxylase activity was associated with the mitochondria. Resolution of the inner and outer membranes of the mitochondria revealed that greater than 99% of the decarboxylase activity was bound to the inner membrane. In contrast to this result, diacylglycerol ethanolaminephosphotransferase, another enzyme responsible for phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis in brain, was greatly enriched in the microsomal fraction. The highest level of phospholipid N-methyltransferase activity was also localized in the microsomal fraction. Thus, phosphatidylethanolamine formation via cytidine diphosphate ethanolamine in brain occurs at a membrane site where it should be available for the biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine by stepwise methylation. In order for phosphatidylethanolamine formed by the decarboxylation reaction to be available for N-methylation, translocation from mitochondria to the microsomal site would be required.
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Robert S, Tancrède P, Salesse C, Leblanc RM. Interactions in mixed monolayers between distearoyl-L-phosphatidylethanolamine, rod outer segment phosphatidylethanolamine and all-trans retinal. Effect of pH. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1983; 730:217-25. [PMID: 6849905 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2736(83)90336-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The interactions in mixed monolayers between distearoyl-L-phosphatidylethanolamine, natural phosphatidylethanolamine purified from bovine rod outer segments and all-trans retinal have been studied at the nitrogen/water interface at 21.0 +/- 0.5 degrees C. Seven mixtures of each phospholipid with all-trans retinal, covering the whole range of molar fractions, were studied. The monolayers were spread on a 1 X 10(-3) M phosphate buffer subphase at three different pH values, 5.5, 7.1 and 8.2. The results for the two series of mixtures are strikingly different. The surface phase rule shows that all-trans retinal is miscible with the natural phospholipid at the interface. Small, negative deviations with respect to the additivity rule are observed in this case. The excess free energies of mixing were also calculated as a function of concentration for this system at four different surface pressures, 5, 7, 10 and 13 mN X m-1. They are negative for the four surface pressures considered and symmetrical with respect to the mole fraction. On the other hand, when distearoyl-L-phosphatidylethanolamine is mixed with all-trans retinal, the components are no longer miscible at the interface. This marked difference in behaviour between the two lipids reflects the importance of hydrophobic interactions in the mixed monolayers of phospholipids with retinals. Furthermore, for the two series of mixtures, the surface pressure isotherms do not show any significant shift when the subphase pH is changed from 5.5 to 8.2. This behaviour raises questions about the formation of a Schiff base between phosphatidylethanolamine and retinal at the interface. It is suggested that, owing to the nature of the disk membranes, such an effect would also be observed in vivo. The possible implications of this are discussed, particularly with respect to questions pertaining to the stability of the retinal chromophore.
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Bridges C, Fong SL, Liou G, Alvarez R, Landers R. Chapter 5 Transport, utilization and metabolism of visual cycle retinoids in the retina and pigment epithelium. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/0278-4327(83)90006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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19
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Inoue Y, Hanafusa Y, Toda M, Chûjô R. Proton and Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies of the Effects of Retinal on the Dynamic Structure and Stability of Lipid Bilayer. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 1982. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.55.540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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20
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Shichi H, Somers RL. Photoregeneration. Methods Enzymol 1982; 81:459-63. [PMID: 7098893 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(82)81064-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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21
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Rafferty CN, Shichi H. The involvement of water at the retinal binding site in rhodopsin and early light-induced intramolecular proton transfer. Photochem Photobiol 1981; 33:229-34. [PMID: 7255554 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1981.tb05329.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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22
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Kagan VE, Belousova LV, Tyurin VA, Shvedova AA, Shukolyukov SA. Effects of products of phospholipid hydrolysis by phospholipases on rhodopsin thermal stability in photoreceptor membranes. Vision Res 1981; 21:1029-34. [PMID: 7314483 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(81)90007-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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23
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Azuma K, Azuma M. The regeneration of visual pigments and the change of rod hypersensitivity after irradiation by bleaching light in frog retina. Photochem Photobiol 1980; 32:529-38. [PMID: 6969896 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1980.tb03799.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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24
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Tyurin V, Kagan V, Shukolyukov S, Klaan N, Novikov K, Azizova O. Thermal stability of rhodopsin and protein-lipid interactions in the photoreceptor membranes of homoiothermic and poikilothermic animals. J Therm Biol 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/0306-4565(79)90002-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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25
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Rabinovitch B. A POSSIBLE MECHANISM FOR THE ROLE OF N-RETINYLIDENE PHOSPHATIDYL ETHANOLAMINE IN THE REGENERATION OF RHODOPSIN. Photochem Photobiol 1979. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1979.tb07091.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Rabinovitch B, Yamakawa M. ORD OF RETINAL AND RETINYLIDENE PHOSPHORYL ETHANOLAMINE IN A MICELLE. Photochem Photobiol 1979. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1979.tb07092.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Shichi H, Williams TC. Rhodopsin phosphorylation suggests biochemical heterogeneities of retinal rod disks. JOURNAL OF SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURE 1979; 12:419-24. [PMID: 317716 DOI: 10.1002/jss.400120402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Frogs (Rana pipiens) were injected subcutaneously with (3H)-leucine and allowed to incorporate the radioactive amino acid into newly assembled disks in the retinal rod outer segment. The labeled disks served as a temporal marker for following the turnover of rod outer segments. Animals were killed at different times after injection and outer segments were isolated and phosphorylated with ATP in the light. The visual pigment (as isorhodopsin) was regenerated with 9-cis retinal, extracted, and chromatographed on epichlorohydrin triethanolamine cellulose so that phosphorylated pigment could be separated from unphosphorylated pigment. The ratio of (3H)-radioactivity of phosphorylated pigment to that of unphosphorylated pigment was then plotted against the time after injection. The ratio was high when (3H)-labeled disks were largely associated with the basal region of the rod and decreased as the labeled disks moved toward the rod apical region. The results were interpreted as suggesting that newer disks are phosphorylated preferentially to older disks. Papain digestion of (3H)-labeled disks indicated that rhodopsin in newer disks is more susceptible to proteolysis than that in older disks.
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Shichi H, Somers R. Light-dependent phosphorylation of rhodopsin. Purification and properties of rhodopsin kinase. J Biol Chem 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)38026-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Tsuda M. Kinetic study of photoregeneration process of digitonin-solubilized squid rhodopsin. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1978; 502:495-506. [PMID: 26397 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2728(78)90082-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the photoregeneration process of squid rhodopsin, an intermediate has been found at neutral pH values (phosphate buffer) with a flash light (lambda greater than 540 nm). An intermediate R430, with the 11-cis retinal as chromophore, is produced from metarhodopsin in light and is converted to rhodopsin through the processes R430 leads to P380 and P380 leads to rhodopsin. The pH dependence of the velocity of the conversions suggests that processes R430 leads to P380 and P380 leads to rhodopsin involve a protolytic reaction and that the ionized group is a histidine residue of opsin. Kinetic parameters show that the largest conformational change in opsin occurs in the conversion of R430 leads to P380.
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Matsumoto H, Horiuchi K, Yoshizawa T. Effect of digitonin concentration on regeneration of cattle rhodopsin. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1978; 501:257-68. [PMID: 563728 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2728(78)90031-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Bridges CD. Rhodopsin regeneration in rod outer segments: utilization of 11-cis retinal and retinol. Exp Eye Res 1977; 24:571-80. [PMID: 301481 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4835(77)90114-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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METZLER DAVIDE. Light in Biology. Biochemistry 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-492550-2.50018-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Shichi H, Muellenberg CG, Hárosi FI, Somers RL. Isolation of three isochromic forms of rhodopsin in digitonin. Vision Res 1977; 17:633-6. [PMID: 878346 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(77)90139-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Bridges CD. Vitamin A and the role of the pigment epithelium during bleaching and regeneration of rhodopsin in the frog eye. Exp Eye Res 1976; 22:435-55. [PMID: 1084281 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4835(76)90182-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Pepperberg DR, Lurie M, Brown PK, Dowling JE. Visual adaptation: effects of externally applied retinal on the light-adapted, isolated skate retina. Science 1976; 191:394-6. [PMID: 1246621 DOI: 10.1126/science.1246621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Incubation with externally applied 11-cis retinal induces a marked increase of visual sensitivity within partially bleached skate photoreceptors. This activity of 11-cis retinal is duplicated by 9-cis retinal, but not by all-trans retinal. The sensitization of photoreceptors promoted by 11-cis and 9-cis retinal is accompanied by the formation of rhodopsin and isorhodopsin, respectively.
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Shichi H, Somers RL. Effect of the physical state of phospholipid on rhodopsin regeneration from retinylidene phospholipid. Photochem Photobiol 1975; 22:187-91. [PMID: 1215428 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1975.tb06735.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Abstract
Isolated bovine retinas have been used to study the synthesis of rhodopsin and the renewal of photoreceptor rod outer segments. Both leucine and glucosamine served as radioactive tracers to follow rhodopsin synthesis. In both cases the rod outer segment preparations contained large amounts of labeled macromolecules chromatographically distinct from rhodopsin, the latter representing only about 10% of the high molecular weight labeled material. However, electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gels with sodium dodecyl sulfate indicated that as much as 60-68% of the radioactivity coincided with opsin, the apoprotein of rhodopsin. Treatment of labeled rod outer segments with 9-cis-retinal caused much of the non-rhodopsin label to be converted to isorhodopsin. After such treatment the fraction of the label in visual pigment rose from about 10 to 51% with leucine as the radioactive tracer and to 78% with glucosamine. Similar treatment of bleached outer segments labeled with leucine gave identical results with complete regeneration of isorhodopsin (lambda max 487 nm) which then accounted for 56% of the labeled macromolecules. No such conversion occurred in controls lacking 9-cis-retinal. Both 9-cis- and 11-cis-retinal were effective but all-trans-retinal was ineffective in producing the conversion. Under in vitro conditions opsin appears to be accumulated in the outer segment prior to the addition of retinal.
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