Multiresidue method for the rapid determination--in grape, must and wine--of fungicides frequently used on vineyards

Pesticides Identification and Sustainable Viticulture Practices to Reduce Their Use: An Overview

The use of pesticides is a necessary practice in the modern era. Therefore, it is impossible to ignore the pesticide market, which has developed into one of the most lucrative in the world. Nowadays, humans are subjected to many potential risks, and significant amounts of toxic compounds enter their bodies through food, drink, and the air itself. Identification and quantification of these hazardous compounds is crucial for the sustainable development of an increasing world population which poses high climatic and political constraints on agricultural production systems. The maximum residue limits for pesticides have been regulated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission and European Union to protect human health. In this review, we have summarized and explained the analytical methods for pesticide extraction and determination. Also, sustainable viticulture practices like organic vineyards, tillage, biopesticides, nanobiopesticides, and precision viticulture are briefly discussed. These new techniques allow wine growers to be more profitable and efficient, while contributing to the reduction of pests and increasing the quality of wines.

An Overview of the Factors Influencing Apple Cider Sensory and Microbial Quality from Raw Materials to Emerging Processing Technologies

Given apple, an easily adapted culture, and a large number of apple varieties, the production of apple cider is widespread globally. Through the fermentation process, a series of chemical changes take place depending on the apple juice composition, type of microorganism involved and technology applied. Following both fermentations, alcoholic and malo-lactic, and during maturation, the sensory profile of cider changes. This review summarises the current knowledge about the influence of apple variety and microorganisms involved in cider fermentation on the sensory and volatile profiles of cider. Implications of both Saccharomyces, non-Saccharomyces yeast and lactic acid bacteria, respectively, are discussed. Also are presented the emerging technologies applied to cider processing (pulsed electric field, microwave extraction, enzymatic, ultraviolet and ultrasound treatments, high-pressure and pulsed light processing) and the latest trends for a balanced production in terms of sustainability, authenticity and consumer preferences.

New Trend in the Extraction of Pesticides from the Environmental and Food Samples Applying Microextraction Based Green Chemistry Scenario: A Review

This review focused on the green microextraction methods used for the extraction of pesticides from the environmental and food samples. Microextraction techniques have been explored and applied in various fields of analytical chemistry since its beginning, as evinced by the numerous reviews published. The success of any technique in science and technology is measured by the simplicity, environmentally friendly, and its applications; and the microextraction technique is highly successive. Deliberations were attentive to studies where efforts have been made to validate the methods through the inter-laboratory comparison study to assess the analytical performance of microextraction techniques against conventional methods. Succinctly, developed microextraction methods are shown to impart significant benefits over conventional techniques. Provided that the analytical community continues to put forward attention and resources into the growth and validation of the microextraction technique, a promising future for microextraction is forecasted.

Exposure to pyrimethanil induces developmental toxicity and cardiotoxicity in zebrafish

Pyrimethanil is a broad-spectrum fungicide commonly used in the prevention and treatment of Botrytis cinerea. However, little information is available in the literature to show the toxicity of Pyrimethanil to cardiac development. In this study, we used an experimental animal model to explore the developmental and cardiac toxicity of Pyrimethanil in aquatic vertebrates; we exposed zebrafish embryos to Pyrimethanil at concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 mg/L from 5.5 to 72 h post fertilisation. We found that Pyrimethanil caused a decrease in the hatching rate, heart rate, and survival rate of zebrafish embryos. Pyrimethanil exposure also resulted in pericardial and yolk sac edema, spinal deformity, and heart loop failure. Moreover, Pyrimethanil increased reactive oxygen stress levels and heightened the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Alterations were induced in the transcription of apoptosis-related genes (p53, Bax, Bcl2, Casp 9, and Casp6l1) and heart development-related genes (Tbx2b, Gata4, Myh6, Vmhc, Nppa, Bmp2b, Bpm 4, and Bpm 10). Our data showed that the activation of Wnt signalling by BML-284 could partially rescue the malformed phenotype caused by Pyrimethanil. Our results provide new evidence for Pyrimethanil's toxicity and the danger of its residues in the environment and agricultural products.

Ensilability, in vitro and in vivo values of the agro-industrial by-products of artichoke and broccoli

By-products of raw artichoke (RA) (Cynara scolymus L.) and boiled broccoli (BB) (Brassica oleracea, var. italica) were ensiled in plastic bags for 24 days. Then, chemical composition, nutritive characteristics, in vitro rumen degradability, in vivo digestibility and phytosanitary residue contents of the silages were evaluated. The fermentative parameters studied indicated that plastic bags were a suitable method to silage RA and BB by-products. Both silages had a high in vitro rumen DM disappearance at 72 h, although it was higher in the BB silage (96.8 vs. 82.1%). In vivo digestibility of DM was similar and high in both silages (78.5 and 80.0% in RA and BB), but crude protein and NDF digestibilities were higher in the BB silage (83.0 and 88.3% vs. 55.1 and 78.8%). No residues of analysed phytosanitary were found. In conclusion, silages of wastes from the processing of artichoke and broccoli were free from the analysed several phytosanitary residues, their nutritive value made them adequate for feeding ruminant animals and are an environmentally friendly way of disposal of such residues.

Trace analysis of multi-class pesticide residues in Chinese medicinal health wines using gas chromatography with electron capture detection

A method is described for multi-residue, high-throughput determination of trace levels of 22 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and 5 pyrethroid pesticides (PYPs) in Chinese medicinal (CM) health wines using a QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) based extraction method and gas chromatography-electron capture detection (GC-ECD). Several parameters were optimized to improve preparation and separation time while still maintaining high sensitivity. Validation tests of spiked samples showed good linearities for 27 pesticides (R = 0.9909-0.9996) over wide concentration ranges. Limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) were measured at ng/L levels, 0.06-2 ng/L and 0.2-6 ng/L for OCPs and 0.02-3 ng/L and 0.06-7 ng/L for PYPs, respectively. Inter- and intra-day precision tests showed variations of 0.65-9.89% for OCPs and 0.98-13.99% for PYPs, respectively. Average recoveries were in the range of 47.74-120.31%, with relative standard deviations below 20%. The developed method was then applied to analyze 80 CM wine samples. Beta-BHC (Benzene hexachloride) was the most frequently detected pesticide at concentration levels of 5.67-31.55 mg/L, followed by delta-BHC, trans-chlordane, gamma-BHC, and alpha-BHC. The validated method is simple and economical, with adequate sensitivity for trace levels of multi-class pesticides. It could be adopted by laboratories for this and other types of complex matrices analysis.

Ionic liquid-based carbon nanotube coated magnetic nanoparticles as adsorbent for the magnetic solid phase extraction of triazole fungicides from environmental water

Ionic liquid-based magnetic carbon nanotubes (IL-Fe₃O₄@MWCNTs) were synthesized as a novel adsorbent in MSPE for determination of six triazole fungicides in environmental water.

[Determination of fungicide anilinopyrimidine residues in food by series solid phase extraction-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry]

A high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/ MS) method was established for the determination of fungicide anilinopyrimidine residues including pyrimethanil, mepanipyrim, and cyprodinil in foodstuffs with series solid phase extraction (SPE). The food sample was first extracted with ethyl acetate, and then purified by an ENVI-Carb cartridge and a Florisil SPE cartridge. The analytes were determined by HPLC-MS/MS and quantified by external standard method. The mass spectrometric detection was operated with electrospray in positive ionization mode and the fungicide anilinopyrimidines were identified in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. The linear range of the method was 1 - 20 microg/L, with the correlation coefficient (r2) over 0. 999 0. The transitions of the precursor ions to two selected product ions were involved, in which one group for quantification were m/z 200. 1/107. 1 for pyrimethanil, m/z 224. 0/106. 0 for mepanipyrim and m/z 226. 0/108. 1 for cyprodinil, and the other group for identification were m/z 200. 1/183. 1 for pyrimethanil, m/z 224. 0/131. 1 for mepanipyrim and m/z 226. 0/133. 1 for cyprodinil, respectively. No significant matrix effect was found for spiked samples after the purification. The recoveries of the fungicide anilinopyrimidines spiked in food samples were 73.2% -98.7% at the spiked levels of 0. 1, 0.5, 1.0 microg/kg. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) were less than 10%. The limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) were 0. 03 microg/kg and 0.1 microg/kg for the three fungicides, respectively. The results showed that the proposed method is sensitive and accurate for the determination of fungicide anilinopyrimidines in foodstuffs. The method should be applicable for routine analysis of pyrimethanil, mepanipyrim, cyprodinil residues in foodstuffs.

Aquatic ecotoxicity of the fungicide pyrimethanil: effect profile under optimal and thermal stress conditions

The aquatic ecotoxic profile of the fungicide pyrimethanil and its acute and chronic thermal dependence in two aquatic invertebrates Chironomus riparius and Daphnia magna were investigated. The ecotoxicity of pyrimethanil at optimal thermal conditions did not depend on the trophic level, but was species-specific. The acute pyrimethanil-toxicity on C. riparius increased with higher temperature. The chronic response of Daphnia magna to the NOEC of the fungicide was examined in a multigenerational experiment under three near-natural temperature regimes. A pyrimethanil-induced increase of total mortality was buffered by the strongly related increase of the general reproductive capacity, while population growth was stronger influenced by temperature than by the fungicide. At a LOEC, however, a second generation could not be established with D. magna at all thermal regimes. This clearly shows that thermal and multigenerational effects should be considered when appraising the ecotoxicity of pesticides and assessing their future risk for the environment.

Fate of iprovalicarb, indoxacarb, and boscalid residues in grapes and wine by GC-ITMS analysis

The behavior in field and the transfer from grapes to wine during winemaking of iprovalicarb, indoxacarb, and boscalid was studied. The residue levels found in grapes were far below the MRLs set for grapes in EU, accounting at harvest time 0.81, 0.43, and 4.23 mg/kg for iprovalicarb, indoxacarb, and boscalid, respectively. The residue levels in the samples treated with boscalid may have residual problems (due to an accumulation effect) if repeated field treatments will be performed. Winemaking experiments showed a complete transfer of all pesticide from grapes to the must, while in wine the residues were low or negligible due to the adsorbing effect of lees and pomace. The clarification experiments showed a good removal of pesticide residues from the wine media, for all pesticides. The GC-ITMS method showed good performance with adequate recoveries ranging from 75 to 115%, and good method limits of quantitation (LOQs) and of determination (LODs) far below MRLs.

Application of dispersion-solidification liquid-liquid microextraction for the determination of triazole fungicides in environmental water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography

A simple, rapid and environmentally friendly method has been developed for the determination of four triazole fungicides (myclobutanil, tebuconazole, triadimenol, hexaconazole) in water samples by dispersion-solidification liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection. Several variables that affect the extraction efficiencies, including the type and volume of the extraction solvent and dispersive solvent, extraction time, effect of pH and salt addition, were investigated and optimized. Under the optimum conditions, the proposed method is sensitive and shows a good linearity within a range of 0.5-200 ng mL(-1), with the correlation coefficients (r) varying from 0.9992 to 0.9998. High enrichment factors were achieved ranging from 190 to 450. The recoveries of the target analytes from water samples at spiking levels of 1.0, 5.0 and 50.0 ng mL(-1) were between 84.8% and 110.2%. The limits of detection (LODs) for the analytes were ranged in 0.06-0.1 ng mL(-1), and the relative standard deviations (RSD) varied from 3.9% to 5.7%. The proposed method has been successfully applied for the determination of the triazole fungicides in real water samples.

Simultaneous determination of 346 multiresidue pesticides in grapes by PSA-MSPD and GC-MS-SIM

The article demonstrates a method of simultaneous determination for 352 pesticide residues in grapes using primary-secondary amine (PSA) matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD) cleanup and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-selected ion monitoring (GC-MS-SIM). Grape samples (15 g) were mixed with 6 g of anhydrous magnesium sulfate and 1.5 g of sodium chloride, and then extracted with acetonitrile (15 mL) and cleaned up with 0.3 g of dispersive PSA. The analytes were determined by GC-MS-SIM. Four injections for one sample were acquired to cover a total of 352 pesticides. The limit of detection (LOD) for the method was 0.0017-0.2667 mg kg(-1), depending on the nature of compounds. The linear correlation coefficient (r) was equal to or greater than 0.95; at low, medium, and high fortification levels, recoveries ranged from 45% to 136% for 352 pesticides, among which the recoveries between 60%-120% accounted for 97%. The pesticides for which the relative standard deviations (RSD) were equal to or below 20% accounted for 95%. A positive of nine varieties of grape samples was detected out, one of which was abtained Changli city, Hebei province, China. Pesticides were identified by the retention time, molecule ions, fragment ions, and the abundance ratio of the selected ions. The analytical method was rugged, quick, cheap and effective, and suitable for the determination of a wide scope of 346 pesticides in grapes.

Multiresidue determination of 11 new fungicides in grapes and wines by liquid-liquid extraction/clean-up and programmable temperature vaporization injection with analyte protectants/gas chromatography/ion trap mass spectrometry

A gas chromatographic ion trap mass spectrometry (GC-ITMS) method was developed for the determination of 11 new generation fungicides (benalaxyl, benalaxyl-M, boscalid, cyazofamid, famoxadone, fenamidone, fluquinconazole, iprovalicarb, pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin and zoxamide) in grapes and wines. Samples were extracted with ethyl acetate:hexane (1:1, v/v) and cleaned-up with graphitized carbon black/primary secondary amine (GCB/PSA) solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges using acetonitrile:toluene (3:1, v/v) as eluent. The addition of analyte protectants (3-ethoxy-1,2-propanediol, d-sorbitol and l-gulonic acid gamma-lactone) in the final extracts allowed to avoid the matrix-induced response enhancement effect on quantitation process with absolute recoveries ca. 100%. Precision (expressed as relative standard deviation) was lower than 16% for all fungicides. Limits of detection and quantitation were lower than 0.01 mg/kg or mg/L, except for cyazofamid, much smaller in all cases than maximum residue levels (MRLs) established by European Union for grapes and by Switzerland and Italy for wines. The proposed method was applied to determine fungicide residues in three different white grapes for vinification produced in Ribeiro area in Galicia (NW Spain), as well as in their corresponding final wines.

Traceability of phytosanitary products in the production of a Sherry wine vinegar

In the present work, the monitoring of the evolution of the different phytosanitary products employed in the production of a Sherry wine vinegar has been carried out. The study covers the complete process, from the grape ripening to the vinegar fermentation. For the liquid sample analysis, a method based on SBSE (stir bar sorptive extraction) coupled to GC-MS and previously developed was used. For the grape samples, the use of two different extraction methods (ultrasound assisted extraction and microwave assisted extraction) was considered. Both methods were correctly optimized by means of factorial designs and were finally compared to each other. Considering the obtained results, the ultrasound extraction method was chosen to make the extraction of the solid samples. After the extraction process, the different extracts were analyzed by means of SBSE-GC-MS. The achieved results show the decrease of the phytosanitary product residues during the grape ripening, most of them being removed completely before the final product.

Pesticide residues in grapes from vineyards included in integrated pest management in Slovenia

Although the list of pesticides used in integrated pest management (IPM) in grape growing and their annual application rates are limited, we are still confronted with the problem of pesticide residues in grapes. This paper presents the results of pesticide monitoring of 47 samples of wine grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) from the 2006 vintage from vineyards included in IPM. The grape samples were analysed for the presence of 67 pesticides. Among them 20 were allowed in IPM in 2006. Grapes were sampled at harvest. Two internal analytical methods were used for the determination of pesticides: gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method for the determination of dithiocarbamates and a multi-residue GC-MS method. One grape sample (2.1%) contained no residues or they were below the limit of detection, 28 samples (59.6%) contained residues lower or equal than maximum residue levels (MRLs), and 18 samples (38.3%) exceeded national MRLs for cyprodinil (the concentration range was 0.03-0.40 mg kg(-1) of cyprodinil) and fludioxonil (concentration was 0.03 mg kg(-1) of fludioxonil). Multiple residues were found in 41 samples (87.2%). The highest number of pesticides detected per sample was seven. No violation of pesticides allowed in IPM was observed. Folpet (97.9%), cyprodinil (51.1%), dithiocarbamates (44.7%), chlorothalonil (23.4%), chlorpyriphos (19.1%) and pyrimethanil (14.9%) were the most frequently found pesticides in grapes. Risk assessment showed that the exceeded concentrations of cyprodinil and fludioxonil did not represent any risk for consumer's health (the national estimate of short-term intake as a percentage of the acceptable daily intake was below 100%).

Determination of pesticides in wine using micellar electrokinetic chromatography with UV detection and sample stacking

In this work, the analysis of a group of four fungicides (pyrimethanil, nuarimol, procymidone and cyprodinil) and one insecticide (pirimicarb) by micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) with UV detection using the on-line preconcentration strategy called reversed electrode polarity stacking mode (REPSM) is proposed. After optimisation, an adequate separation electrolyte for the separation and stacking of these pesticides was obtained which consisted of 100 mM borate, 60 mM sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), at pH 9.0 and 2% 2-propanol. The use of this running buffer together with the REPSM preconcentration method provided limits of detection (LODs) between 38.3 and 241 microg/L. In order to apply the developed methodology for the analysis of these pesticides in wine samples, several off-line preconcentration strategies (mainly, solid-phase extraction, SPE, and solid-phase microextraction, SPME) were tested. Although the use of a SPE procedure, optimized in this work for water samples, using Oasis HLB cartridges, provided mean recovery values between 79 and 100% for spiked water samples, it could not be applied to the extraction of these pesticides from wine samples due to high interference from the sample matrix. However, the use of a SPME procedure using polydimethylsiloxane/divynilbenzene (PDMS/DVB) fibers allowed the selective extraction of four of the five pesticides which could be perfectly determined. The final combination of the off-line SPME and on-line REPSM preconcentration strategies allowed obtaining LODs between 17.6 and 32.3 microg/L.

Determination of pesticides and metabolites in wine by high performance liquid chromatography and second-order calibration methods

The models parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and the recently introduced bilinear least squares (BLLS) were applied to develop second-order calibration methods to high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) data, where overlap of interferences with the compounds of interest was observed, making the determination and resolution of the analytes possible. In this work, the simultaneous determination of five pesticides and two metabolites in wine samples by HPLC-DAD was performed, using the second-order advantage. The results of two chromatographic methods were compared, involving either isocratic or gradient elution. An appropriate preprocessing method was necessary to correct the effects of time shifts, baseline variations and background. BLLS presented results that were of the same quality as PARAFAC in five cases, but in two other situations only PARAFAC enabled analyte quantitation. Relative errors of prediction lower than 10% for all compounds were obtained, indicating that the methodology employing HLPC-DAD and second-order calibration can handle complex analytical systems.

Current trends in solid-phase-based extraction techniques for the determination of pesticides in food and environment

Solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedures for pesticide residues in food and environment are reviewed and discussed. The use of these procedures, which include several approaches such as: matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD), solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) and stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), represents an opportunity to reduce analysis time, solvent consumption, and overall cost. SPE techniques differ from solvent extraction depending on the interactions between a sorbent and the pesticide. This interaction may be specific for a particular pesticide, as in the interaction with an immunosorbent, or non-specific, as in the way a number of different pesticides are adsorbed on apolar or polar materials. A variety of applications were classified according to the method applied: conventional SPE, SPME, hollow-fiber micro-extraction (HFME), MSPD and SBSE. Emphasis is placed on the multiresidue analysis of liquid and solid samples.