Tryptophan analysis in peptides and proteins, mainly by liquid chromatography

Analysis, Nutrition, and Health Benefits of Tryptophan

Tryptophan is an essential plant-derived amino acid that is needed for the in vivo biosynthesis of proteins. After consumption, it is metabolically transformed to bioactive metabolites, including serotonin, melatonin, kynurenine, and the vitamin niacin (nicotinamide). This brief integrated overview surveys and interprets our current knowledge of the reported multiple analytical methods for free and protein-bound tryptophan in pure proteins, protein-containing foods, and in human fluids and tissues, the nutritional significance of l-tryptophan and its isomer d-tryptophan in fortified infant foods and corn tortillas as well the possible function of tryptophan in the diagnosis and mitigation of multiple human diseases. Analytical methods include the use of acid ninhydrin, near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy, colorimetry, basic hydrolysis; acid hydrolysis of S-pyridylethylated proteins, and high-performance liquid and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Also covered are the nutritional values of tryptophan-fortified infant formulas and corn-based tortillas, safety of tryptophan for human consumption and the analysis of maize (corn), rice, and soybean plants that have been successfully genetically engineered to produce increasing tryptophan. Dietary tryptophan and its metabolites seem to have the potential to contribute to the therapy of autism, cardiovascular disease, cognitive function, chronic kidney disease, depression, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, sleep, social function, and microbial infections. Tryptophan can also facilitate the diagnosis of certain conditions such as human cataracts, colon neoplasms, renal cell carcinoma, and the prognosis of diabetic nephropathy. The described findings are not only of fundamental scientific interest but also have practical implications for agriculture, food processing, food safety, nutrition, and animal and human health. The collated information and suggested research need will hopefully facilitate and guide further studies needed to optimize the use of free and protein-bound tryptophan and metabolites to help improve animal and human nutrition and health.

A rapid and specific colorimetric method for free tryptophan quantification

Tryptophan is one of the eight essential amino acids and plays an important role in many biological processes. For its interaction with human health, environment and relevant commercial interest in biotechnology-based production, rapid and specific quantification method for this molecule accessible to common laboratories is badly needed. We herein reported a simple colorimetric method for free tryptophan quantification with 96-well-plate-level throughput. Our protocol firstly converted tryptophan to indole enzymatically by purified tryptophanases and then used reactivity of indole with hydroxylamine to form pink product with absorption peak at 530nm, enabling the quantification of tryptophan with simple spectrometry in just two hours. We presented that this method exhibited a linear detection range from 100μM to 600μM (R² = 0.9969) with no detection towards other naturally occurring tryptophan analogs or tryptophan residues in proteins. It was very robust in complicated biological samples, as demonstrated by quantifying the titer of 36 mutated tryptophan-producing strains with Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.93 in contrast to that measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Our method should be potent for routine free tryptophan quantification in a high-throughput manner, facilitating studies in medicine, microbiology, food chemistry, metabolic engineering, etc.

Analysis of amino acid composition in proteins of animal tissues and foods as pre-column o-phthaldialdehyde derivatives by HPLC with fluorescence detection

Studies of protein nutrition and biochemistry require reliable methods for analysis of amino acid (AA) composition in polypeptides of animal tissues and foods. Proteins are hydrolyzed by 6M HCl (110°C for 24h), 4.2M NaOH (105°C for 20 h), or proteases. Analytical techniques that require high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) include pre-column derivatization with 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan, 9-fluorenyl methylchloroformate, phenylisothiocyanate, naphthalene-2,3-dicarboxaldehyde, 6-aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate, and o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA). OPA reacts with primary AA (except cysteine or cystine) in the presence of 2-mercaptoethanol or 3-mercaptopropionic acid to form a highly fluorescent adduct. OPA also reacts with 4-amino-1-butanol and 4-aminobutane-1,3-diol produced from oxidation of proline and 4-hydroxyproline, respectively, in the presence of chloramine-T plus sodium borohydride at 60°C, or with S-carboxymethyl-cysteine formed from cysteine and iodoacetic acid at 25°C. Fluorescence of OPA derivatives is monitored at excitation and emission wavelengths of 340 and 455 nm, respectively. Detection limits are 50 fmol for AA. This technique offers the following advantages: simple procedures for preparation of samples, reagents, and mobile-phase solutions; rapid pre-column formation of OPA-AA derivatives and their efficient separation at room temperature (e.g., 20-25°C); high sensitivity of detection; easy automation on the HPLC apparatus; few interfering side reactions; a stable chromatography baseline for accurate integration of peak areas; and rapid regeneration of guard and analytical columns. Thus, the OPA method provides a useful tool to determine AA composition in proteins of animal tissues (e.g., skeletal muscle, liver, intestine, placenta, brain, and body homogenates) and foods (e.g., milk, corn grain, meat, and soybean meal).

Biochemical characterization of a new recombinant TNF receptor-hyFc fusion protein expressed in CHO cells

The currently used Tumor Nectosis Factor (TNF)-α blockers such as infliximab, adalimumab and etanercept have Fc regions of the human IgG1 subtype have advantages in terms of in vivo half-life, however these could raise potential concerns for unwanted effector-mediated effects, such as antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) or complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC). To address this issue, we constructed a novel hybrid protein with decreased ADCC and CDC potentials by fusing the TNF receptor to a hybrid Fc (hyFc) containing CH2 and CH3 regions of IgG4 and highly flexible hinge regions of IgD which neither has ADCC and CDC activities. The resulting fusion protein, TNFR-hyFc, was over-expressed in CHO cells. For use as a pre-clinical material in pharmacology, PK and toxicological evaluations were carried out for biochemical characterization which was then compared with etanercept that has similarity in structure. Amino acid composition analysis and peptide mapping showed that the expressed TNFR-hyFc matched the theoretical composition derived from the DNA sequence. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) showed that TNFR-hyFc is 2.9 kDa larger than etanercept. MALDI-TOF after removal of N-glycans by PNGase treatment showed that TNFR-hyFc is 3.9 kDa larger than etanercept. Isoelectric focusing and monosaccharide analysis showed that TNFR-hyFc is slightly more acidic than etanercept. N-terminal amino acid sequencing showed that N-terminal heterogeneity is present in both TNFR-hyFc and etanercept, although the ratios are somewhat different. Glycan analysis showed that the main glycan form is bi-antennary, similar to etanercept.

Automated protein hydrolysis delivering sample to a solid acid catalyst for amino acid analysis

In this study, we developed an automatic protein hydrolysis system using strong cation-exchange resins as solid acid catalysts. Examining several kinds of inorganic solid acids and cation-exchange resins, we found that a few cation-exchange resins worked as acid catalysts for protein hydrolysis when heated in the presence of water. The most efficient resin yielded amounts of amino acids that were over 70% of those recovered after conventional hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid and resulted in amino acid compositions matching the theoretical values. The solid-acid hydrolysis was automated by packing the resin into columns, combining the columns with a high-performance liquid chromatography system, and heating them. The amino acids that constitute a protein can thereby be determined, minimizing contamination from the environment.

One-pot microwave derivatization of target compounds relevant to metabolomics with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

Metabolomics has been defined as the quantitative measurement of all low molecular weight metabolites (sugars, amino acids, organic acids, fatty acids and others) in an organism's cells at a specified time under specific environmental/biological conditions. Currently, there is considerable interest in developing a single method of derivatization and separation that satisfies the needs for metabolite analysis while recognizing the many chemical classes that constitute the metabolome. Chemical derivatization considerably increases the sensitivity and specificity of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for compounds that are polar and have derivatizable groups. Microwave-assisted derivatization (MAD) of a set of standards spanning a wide range of metabolites of interest demonstrates the potential of MAD for metabolic profiling. A final protocol of 150 W power for 90 s was selected as the derivatization condition, based upon the study of each chemical class. A study of the generation of partially derivatized components established the conditions where this could potentially be a problem; the use of greater volumes of reagent ensured this would not arise. All compounds analyzed by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry in a standard mixture showed good area ratio reproducibility against a naphthalene internal standard (RSD<10% in all but one case). Concentrations tested ranged from 1 microg/mL to 1000 microg/mL, and the calibration curves for the standard mixtures were satisfactory with regression coefficients generally better than 0.998. The application to gas chromatography-quadrupole mass spectrometry and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry for a typical reference standard of relevance to metabolomics is demonstrated.

Amino acid analysis

Amino acid analysis is used to determine the amino acid content of amino acid-, peptide- and protein-containing samples. With minor exceptions, proteins are long linear polymers of amino acids connected to each other via peptide bonds. The first step of amino acid analysis involves hydrolyzing these peptide bonds. The liberated amino acids are then separated, detected, and quantified. The method was first developed by Moore, Stein and coworkers in the 1950s using HCl acid hydrolysis, and, despite considerable effort by many workers, the basic methodology remains relatively unchanged. This unit provides an overview and strategic planning for amino acid analysis, discussing a range of methodologies and issues. In addition, several common methods used for analysis of L-amino acids are described in detail, including: HCl acid hydrolysis, performic acid oxidation for methionine and cysteine analysis, base hydrolysis for tryptophan analysis, analysis of free amino acids, and analysis of reactive lysine.

Aliphatic carboxylic acids as new modifiers for separation of 2,4-dinitrophenyl amino acids by micellar liquid chromatography

The possibilities of isocratic separation of 2,4-dinitrophenyl derivatives of 12 amino acids that considerably differ in hydrophobicity by micellar mobile phases with different organic modifiers have been discussed. For the first time aliphatic carboxylic acids have been used as modifiers of micellar eluent in micellar liquid chromatography with C18 columns. Elution strength of hybrid micellar phases on the basis of sodium dodecylsulfate and aliphatic carboxylic acids increases in sequence: acetic<propanoic<butanoic<pentanoic<hexanoic acid. The effect of sodium dodecylsulfate micelles on aliphatic carboxylic acids has been characterized by their micellar-induced shifts of ionization constants. The use of aliphatic carboxylic acids as modifiers of SDS micellar eluents provides better overall resolution of 2,4-dinitrophenyl-amino acids in comparison with aliphatic alcohols.

HPLC of tryptophan and its metabolites: as OPA derivatives and on the basis of their UV and fluorescence spectra, simultaneously

A HPLC method was developed for the quantitation of tryptophan and its metabolites, in total sixteen compounds, belonging both to the indolyl and kynurenine pathways. Primary amino group containing metabolites have been quantitated as their o-phthaldialdehyde/3-mercaptopropionic acid derivatives (5-hydroxytryptophan, tryptophan, 5-hydroxytryptamine, tryptamine), others without derivatization (quinolinic-, nicotinic-, antranilic-, xanthurenic-, kynurenic, indoleacetic- and indolepropionic acids, nicotineamide, melatonin, tryptophol, indole, methyl-indole), in a single run, within 20 min. Fluorescence and UV detections were performed simultaneously.

Sensitive determination of dissolved tryptophan in freshwater by alkaline hydrolysis and HPLC

A sensitive method involving alkaline hydrolysis and HPLC analysis has been developed to detect nanomolar levels of tryptophan dissolved in freshwater. The procedure includes 1) alkaline hydrolysis with nitrogen atmosphere in Teflon-lined Pyrex tubes with 4.2 M sodium hydroxide at 110 degrees C for 16 h, in which ascorbic acid was used as an antioxidant; 2) a determination step, in which tryptophan was separated efficiently from other amino acids by HPLC and measured by fluorescence. The mean recovery for tryptophan standard was 91.4% with an RSD of 3.3%. Using this method, dissolved tryptophan concentrations ranged from 10.91 to 41.83 nM in water samples from Lake Biwa, Japan.

Retention/quantitation properties of the o-phthaldialdehyde-3-mercaptopropionic acid and the o-phthaldialdehyde-N-acetyl-L-cysteine amino acid derivatives in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

The separation/identification of 25 amino acids as their o-phthaldialdehyde-3-mercaptopropionic acid (OPA/MPA) and o-phthaldialdehyde-N-acetyl-L-cysteine (OPA/NAC) derivatives have been optimized [paying particular attention to those amino acids which elute with more than one derivative (glycine, histidine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, beta-alanine, ornithine, lysine) and that are expected to be present in apples in their free form]. Optimum separation conditions are reported on six reversed-phase columns: Nucleosil 3 and 5 microm, 150(+20 guard)x4.0 mm; Gromsil 3 microm, 150(+10 guard)x4.0 mm; Hypersil 5 microm, 150(+20 guard)x4.0 mm and 200(+20 guard)x4.0 mm; and Hypersil 3 microm, 150(+20 guard)x4.0 mm. Elutions were followed, simultaneously, with photodiode array and fluorescence detectors connected in line. Optimization studies carried out in model solutions as a function of temperature (30-55 degrees C) and eluent flow-rate (0.8-2.5 mL/min) demonstrated that optimum resolutions are obtained with the highest flow-rate applicable (remaining on the safe side with a column pressure of << 3500 p.s.i.; 1 p.s.i.=6894.76 Pa) in the temperature range 30-50 degrees C. Twenty-five amino acids, eluting in 31 separate, characteristic derivatives, were determined on all six columns (the main component, asparagine, present in overwhelming excess, together with the minor constituents glutamine, beta-alanine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, homoserine, and homoarginine). Optimum conditions in the case of both derivatives were obtained on the same type of column (Hypersil, 5 microm), as follows: for the OPA/MPA amino acids with programmed flow-rate [1.3-2.3 ml/min; column, 200(+20 guard)x4 mm], at 50 degrees C, while, for the OPA/NAC amino acids at 2.1 ml/min flow rate, at 30 degrees C [column, 150(+20 guard)x4 mm], with 40 and 37 min run times, including equilibration. Responses of the corresponding amino acids proved to be independent of the column used; reproducibility in the concentration range 6-12,000 pmol, related to the injected amount of amino acids, was <3.4% RSD (average relative standard deviation percentage). The utility of the protocol was demonstrated in the quantitation of the free amino acid content of five apple varieties (Jonagored, Idared, Jonica, Florina, Freedom) on various harvesting dates and after different storage times. Derivatization of the apple pulp was performed with filtered samples, applying any special isolation processes.

Simultaneous determination of cysteine, cystine and 18 other amino acids in various matrices by high-performance liquid chromatography

An extraction protocol and a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of cysteine, cystine and 18 other amino acids in biological and vegetable samples are described. Among the different methods proposed for amino acid determination, phenylisothiocyanate was used as the reagent for derivatization. Chromatograms obtained in the analysis of standard solutions and actual samples are reported, together with regression equation, correlation coefficient (> 0.999 for all), limit of detection and recoveries (between 86 and 102% for all the examined matrices) for each amino acid. Practical protocol and method applications in normal patients and patients affected by different pathologies, and in algal products are discussed.