Chronocoulometric studies of chloride adsorption at the Pt(111) electrode surface

Another Piece of the Ionic Liquid's Puzzle: Adsorption of Cl- Ions

Classical electrochemical and microscopy methods were used to characterize the interfacial processes of the adsorption of chloride ions from ionic liquids at the Bi(111) single crystal electrode. The mixture of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride was electrochemically characterized by using cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. In situ scanning tunneling microscopy images showed the formation of superstructures at the electrode's surface over an extended period of time. The specific adsorption of chloride ions reaches an equilibrium state in a more viscous ionic liquid medium slower than in aqueous and organic solvents. Capacitance values increase considerably (also depending on alternative current frequency) at the potential region, where the specific adsorption of chloride ions with partial charge transfer occurs.

Heterogeneous electron transfer reorganization energy at the inner Helmholtz plane in a polybromide redox-active ionic liquid

In ionic liquids (ILs), the electric double layer (EDL) is where heterogeneous electron transfer (ET) occurs. Nevertheless, the relationship between the EDL structure and its kinetics has been rarely studied, especially for ET taking place in the inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). This is largely because of the lack of an appropriate model system for experiments. In this work, we determined the reorganization energy (λ) of Br₂ reduction in a redox-active IL 1-ethyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium polybromide (MEPBr_2n+1) based on the Marcus–Hush–Chidsey model. Exceptionally fast mass transport of Br₂ in MEPBr_2n+1 allows voltammograms to be obtained in which the current plateau is regulated by electron-transfer kinetics. This enables investigation of the microscopic environment in the IHP of the IL affecting electrocatalytic reactions through reorganization energy. As a demonstration, TiO₂-modified Pt was employed to show pH-dependent reorganization energy, which suggests the switch of major ions at the IHP as a function of surface charges of electrodes.

Ultrafast transport of Br₂ in a polybromide redox-active ionic liquid allows electron transfer-limited voltammograms of Br₂ reduction. The reorganization energy at the inner-Helmholtz plane can be determined based on the Marcus–Hush–Chidsey model.

Early Transition-Metal-Based Binary Oxide/Nitride for Efficient Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution from Saline Water in Different pH Environments

Using abundant seawater can reduce reliance on freshwater resources for hydrogen production from electrocatalytic water splitting. However, seawater has detrimental effects on the stability and activity of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) electrocatalysts under different pH conditions. In this work, we report the synthesis of binary metallic core-sheath nitride@oxynitride electrocatalysts [Ni(ETM)]^δ+-[O-N]^δ-, where ETM is an early transition metal V or Cr. Using NiVN on a nickel foam (NF) substrate, we demonstrate an HER overpotential as low as 32 mV at -10 mA cm^-2 in saline water (0.6 M NaCl). The results represent an advancement in saline water HER performance of earth-abundant electrocatalysts, especially under near-neutral pH range (i.e., pH 6-8). Doping ETMs in nickel oxynitrides accelerates the typically rate-determining H₂O dissociation step for HER and suppresses chloride deactivation of the catalyst in neutral-pH saline water. Heterointerface synergism occurs through H₂O adsorption and dissociation at interfacial oxide character, while adsorbed H* proceeds via Heyrovsky or Tafel step on the nitride character. This electrocatalyst showed stable performance under a constant current density of -50 mA cm^-2 for 50 h followed by additional 50 h at -100 mA cm^-2 in a neutral saline electrolyte (1 M PB + 0.6 M NaCl). Contrarily, under the same conditions, Pt/C@NF exhibited significantly low performance after a mere 4 h at -50 mA cm^-2. The low Tafel slope of 25 mV dec^-1 indicated that the reaction is Tafel limited, unlike commercial Pt/C, which is Heyrovsky limited. We close by discussing general principles concerning surface charge delocalization for the design of HER electrocatalysts in pH saline environments.

Versatile 3D-Printed Micro-Reference Electrodes for Aqueous and Non-Aqueous Solutions

While numerous reference electrodes suitable for aqueous electrolytes exist, there is no well-defined standard for non-aqueous electrolytes. Furthermore, reference electrodes are often large and do not meet the size requirements for small cells. In this work, we present a simple method for fabricating stable 3D-printed micro-reference electrodes. The prints are made from polyvinylidene fluoride, which is chemically inert in strong acids, bases, and commonly used non-aqueous solvents. We chose six different reference systems based on Ag, Cu, Zn, and Na, including three aqueous and three non-aqueous systems to demonstrate the versatility of the approach. Subsequently, we conducted cyclic voltammetry experiments and measured the potential difference between the aqueous homemade reference electrodes and a commercial Ag/AgCl-electrode. For the non-aqueous reference electrodes, we chose the ferrocene redox couple as an internal standard. From these measurements, we deduced that this new class of micro-reference electrodes is leak-tight and shows a stable electrode potential.

Electrocatalytic nitrate reduction on rhodium sulfide compared to Pt and Rh in the presence of chloride

Chloride poisoning is a serious problem for the electrocatalytic reduction of aqueous nitrate (NO3−) and improved electrocatalysts are needed.

Using Chronopotentiometry to Better Characterize the Charge Injection Mechanisms of Platinum Electrodes Used in Bionic Devices

The safe charge injection capacity and charge density of neural stimulating electrodes is based on empirical evidence obtained from stimulating feline cortices. Stimulation induced tissue damage may be caused by electrochemical or biological mechanisms. Separating these mechanisms requires greater understanding of charge transfer at the electrode-tissue interface. Clinical devices typically use a biphasic waveform with controlled current. Therefore, the charge injection mechanism and charge injection capacity of platinum was assessed on a commercial potentiostat by chronopotentiometry (controlled current stimulation). Platinum is a non-ideal electrode, charge injection by chronopotentiometry can be passed via capacitive and Faradaic mechanisms. Electrodes were tested under a variety of conditions to assess the impact on charge injection capacity. The change in electrode potential (charge injection capacity) was affected by applied charge density, pulse length, pulse polarity, electrode size, polishing method, electrolyte composition, and oxygen concentration. The safe charge injection capacity and charge density could be increased by changing the electrode-solution composition and stimulation parameters. However, certain conditions (e.g., acid polished electrodes) allowed the electrode to exceed the water electrolysis potential despite the stimulation protocol being deemed safe according to the Shannon plot. Multiple current pulses led to a shift or ratcheting in electrode potential due to changes in the electrode-solution composition. An accurate measure of safe charge injection capacity and charge density of an implantable electrode can only be obtained from suitable conditions (an appropriately degassed electrolyte and clinically relevant electrode structure). Cyclic voltammetric measurement of charge storage capacity can be performed on implantable electrodes, but will not provide information on electrode stability to multiple chronopotentiometric pulses. In contrast, chronopotentiometry will provide details on electrode stability, but the minimum time resolution of typical commercial potentiostats (ms range) is greater than used in a clinical stimulator (μs range) so that extrapolation to short stimulation pulses is required. Finally, an impedance test is typically used to assess clinical electrode performance. The impedance test is also based on a biphasic chronopotentiometic waveform where the measured potential is used to calculate an impedance value. Here it is shown that the measured potential is a function of many parameters (solution composition, electrode area, and surface composition). Subsequently, impedance test results allow electrode comparison and to indicate electrode failure, but use of Ohm's law to calculate an impedance value is not valid.

Surface-Limited Electrodeposition of Continuous Platinum Networks on Highly Ordered Pyrolytic Graphite

Continuous thin platinum nanoplatelet networks and thin films were obtained on the flat surface of highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) by high overpotential electrodeposition. By increasing the deposition time, the morphology of the Pt deposits can be progressively tuned from isolated nanoplatelets, interconnected nanostructures, and thin large flat islands. The deposition is surface-limited and the thickness of the deposits, equivalent to 5 to 12 Pt monolayers, is not time dependent. The presence of Pt (111) facets is confirmed by High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM) and evidence for the early formation of a platinum monolayer is provided by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-rays Spectroscopy (STEM-EDX) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. The electroactivity towards the oxygen reduction reaction of the 2D deposits is also assessed, demonstrating their great potential in energy conversion devices where ultra-low loading of Pt via extended surfaces is a reliable strategy.

Electron transfer processes occurring on platinum neural stimulating electrodes: calculated charge-storage capacities are inaccessible during applied stimulation

OBJECTIVE

Neural prostheses employing platinum electrodes are often constrained by a charge/charge-density parameter known as the Shannon limit. In examining the relationship between charge injection and observed tissue damage, the electrochemistry at the electrode-tissue interface should be considered. The charge-storage capacity (CSC) is often used as a predictor of how much charge an electrode can inject during stimulation, but calculating charge from a steady-state i-E curve (cyclic voltammogram) over the water window misrepresents how electrodes operate during stimulation. We aim to gain insight into why CSC predictions from classic i-E curves overestimate the amount of charge that can be injected during neural stimulation pulsing.

APPROACH

In this study, we use a standard electrochemical technique to investigate how platinum electrochemistry depends on the potentials accessed by the electrode and on the electrolyte composition.

MAIN RESULTS

The experiments indicate: (1) platinum electrodes must be subjected to a 'cleaning' procedure in order to expose the maximum number of surface platinum sites for hydrogen adsorption; (2) the 'cleaned' platinum surface will likely revert to an obstructed condition under typical neural stimulation conditions; (3) irreversible oxygen reduction may occur under neural stimulation conditions, so the consequences of this reaction should be considered; and (4) the presence of the chloride ion (Cl^-) or proteins (bovine serum albumin) inhibits oxide formation and alters H adsorption.

SIGNIFICANCE

These observations help explain why traditional CSC calculations overestimate the charge that can be injected during neural stimulation. The results underscore how careful electrochemical examination of the electrode-electrolyte interface can result in more accurate expectations of electrode performance during applied stimulation.

Multifunctional Water Sensors for pH, ORP, and Conductivity Using Only Microfabricated Platinum Electrodes

Monitoring of the pH, oxidation-reduction-potential (ORP), and conductivity of aqueous samples is typically performed using multiple sensors. To minimize the size and cost of these sensors for practical applications, we have investigated the use of a single sensor constructed with only bare platinum electrodes deposited on a glass substrate. The sensor can measure pH from 4 to 10 while simultaneously measuring ORP from 150 to 800 mV. The device can also measure conductivity up to 8000 μS/cm in the range of 10 °C to 50 °C, and all these measurements can be made even if the water samples contain common ions found in residential water. The sensor is inexpensive (i.e., ~$0.10/unit) and has a sensing area below 1 mm², suggesting that the unit is cost-efficient, robust, and widely applicable, including in microfluidic systems.

Kinetics of reduction of aqueous hexaammineruthenium(III) ion at Pt and Au microelectrodes: electrolyte, temperature, and pressure effects

Rate constants kel obtained by impedance spectroscopy for the reduction of Ru(NH3)6(3+) at polycrystalline Pt and Au ultramicroelectrodes depend strongly on the identity and concentration of the anion present in the order CF3SO3(-) < Cl(-) < ClO4(-), but not on the cation of the supporting electrolyte (Na(+), K(+), H(+)). For Cl(-) as the sole anion present, kel is directly proportional to the total [Cl(-)], such that kel would be zero if Cl(-) were hypothetically absent, indicating that Cl(-) is directly involved in mediation of the Ru(NH3)6(3+/2+) electron transfer. For CF3SO3(-) as the sole counterion, the dependence of kel on the total [CF3SO3(-)] is not linear, possibly because blocking of the available electrode surface becomes dominant at high triflate concentrations. Volumes of activation ΔVel(⧧) for reduction of Ru(NH3)6(3+) at an electrode in presence of Cl(-) or CF3SO3(-) are much more negative than predictions based on theory (Swaddle, T. W. Chem. Rev.2005, 105, 2573) that has been successful with other electron transfer reactions but which does not take into account the involvement of the anions in the activation process. The strongly negative ΔVel(⧧) values probably reflect solvation increases peculiar to activation processes of Ru(III/II) am(m)ine complexes, possibly together with promotion of desorption of surface-blocking Cl(-) or CF3SO3(-) from electrodes by applied pressure. Frumkin corrections for Ru(NH3)6(3+) within the diffuse double layer would make ΔVel(⧧) even more negative than is observed, although the corrections would be small. The strongly negative ΔVel(⧧) values are inconsistent with reduction of Ru(NH3)6(3+) in direct contact with the metallic electrode surface, which would entail substantial dehydration of both the electrode and Ru(NH3)6(3+). Reduction of Ru(NH3)6(3+) can be regarded as taking place in hard contact with adsorbed water at the outer Helmholtz plane.

Update on current state and problems in the surface tension of condensed matter

The dual concept of surface energy formally allows application of Gibbs thermodynamics to the surface tension of solids and is unlimited using the classical Lippmann equation for solids that is shown to contradict all available in situ experimental data. At present, the generalized Lippmann equation is believed to be the most universal, since the classical Lippmann equation, the Shuttleworth and Gokhshtein equations could be derived from it. Lately it was evaluated in two opposite ways: the first--the experimental verification of the Gokhshtein equation supports correctness of the generalized Lippmann and Shuttleworth equations; the second--the incompatibility of the Shuttleworth equation with Hermann's mathematical structure of thermodynamics makes invalid all its corollaries, including the generalized Lippmann and Gokhshtein equations. Both approaches are shown here to be incorrect, since the Gokhshtein equation cannot be correctly derived from any of the above-mentioned equations. The Frumkin derivation of the first and second Gokhshtein equations follows from one thermodynamic relationship general for the surface tension of both solid and liquid electrodes. The classical Lippmann equation is also derived from this general relationship as a particular case of the second Gokhshtein equations. We have considered the hierarchy of these equations and discussed the straightforward application of the classical Lippmann equation for solids with an account for elasticity of the surface structured layers of liquids. The partial charge transfer during anion adsorption cannot be measured in electrochemical experiments or reliably estimated by quantum-chemical and DFT calculations. However, it is directly involved in the adsorbate charge that is experimentally accessible by in situ contact electric resistance technique. We present the first quantitative evaluation of charge transfer during halides adsorption on silver from aqueous solutions in dependence on the electrode potential.

Adsorption and Desorption of HCl on Pt(111)

The adsorption and desorption of HCl on Pt(111) is investigated by temperature programmed desorption, infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy, and low energy electron diffraction. Five peaks are identified in the desorption spectra prior to the onset of multilayer desorption. At low coverage ( < 0.25 monolayers (ML)), desorption peaks at approximately 135 and 200 K are observed and assigned to recombinative desorption of dissociated HCl. At higher coverages, desorption peaks at 70, 77, and 84 K are observed. These peaks are assigned to the desorption of molecularly adsorbed HCl. The infrared spectra are in agreement with these assignments and show that HCl deposited at 20 K is amorphous but crystallizes when heated above 60 K. Kinetic analysis of the desorption spectra reveals a strong repulsive coverage dependence for the desorption energy of the low coverage features ( < 0.25 ML). The diffraction data indicate that at low temperature the adsorbed HCl clusters into ordered islands with a (3 x 3) structure and a local coverage of 4/9 with respect to the Pt(111) substrate.