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Zhang Z, Li X, Chen F, Li Z, Wang D, Ren X, Ma H. Downregulation of LncRNA Gas5 inhibits apoptosis and inflammation after spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion in rats. Brain Res Bull 2020; 168:110-119. [PMID: 33316370 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury(SCII)affects nerve function through many mechanisms, which are complex and not fully understood. Recently, accumulating evidence has indicated that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play an increasingly important role in SCII. We investigated the role of lncRNA growth arrest-specific 5(Gas5) in a rat SCII model, and its effects on apoptosis and inflammation possibly by modulating MMP-7, cleaved caspase-3 and IL-1β. LncRNA Gas5 and MMP-7 were knocked down by intrathecal siRNA injection. Neurological assessment and TUNEL assay were performed. The RNA and protein expression levels of lncRNA Gas5, MMP-7, cleaved caspase-3 and IL-1β were determined by PCR and Western blotting, respectively. MMP-7 localization was visualized by double-immunofluorescence. SCII induced functional impairment in the hind limb, and the expression of lncRNA Gas5 was highest at 24 h after SCII. LncRNA Gas5 downregulation inhibited the RNA and protein expression of MMP-7, as well as the protein expression of cleaved caspase-3 and IL-1β. LncRNA Gas5 downregulation reduced the number of TUNEL-positive and MMP-7-positive double-labeled cells. Therefore, lncRNA Gas5 downregulation alleviated hind limb functional impairment and improved neuronal apoptosis after SCII. MMP-7 downregulation also inhibited apoptosis and inflammation and alleviated damage. Pretreatment with intrathecal injection of si-lncRNA Gas5 and si-MMP-7 reduced the expression levels of cleaved caspase-3 and IL-1β, protecting nerve function after SCII. These results show that lncRNA Gas5 plays an important role in SCII, perhaps by inhibiting MMP-7, cleaved caspase-3 and IL-1β. LncRNA Gas5 downregulation could be a promising therapeutic approach in the SCII treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaili Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Xiaoqian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Fengshou Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Zhe Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Xiaoyan Ren
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Hong Ma
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China.
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Unilateral microinjection of acrolein into thoracic spinal cord produces acute and chronic injury and functional deficits. Neuroscience 2016; 326:84-94. [PMID: 27058147 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.03.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Although lipid peroxidation has long been associated with spinal cord injury (SCI), the specific role of lipid peroxidation-derived byproducts such as acrolein in mediating damage remains to be fully understood. Acrolein, an α-β unsaturated aldehyde, is highly reactive with proteins, DNA, and phospholipids and is considered as a second toxic messenger that disseminates and augments initial free radical events. Previously, we showed that acrolein increased following traumatic SCI and injection of acrolein induced tissue damage. Here, we demonstrate that microinjection of acrolein into the thoracic spinal cord of adult rats resulted in dose-dependent tissue damage and functional deficits. At 24h (acute) after the microinjection, tissue damage, motoneuron loss, and spinal cord swelling were observed on sections stained with Cresyl Violet. Luxol fast blue staining further showed that acrolein injection resulted in dose-dependent demyelination. At 8weeks (chronic) after the microinjection, cord shrinkage, astrocyte activation, and macrophage infiltration were observed along with tissue damage, neuron loss, and demyelination. These pathological changes resulted in behavioral impairments as measured by both the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale and grid walking analysis. Electron microscopy further demonstrated that acrolein induced axonal degeneration, demyelination, and macrophage infiltration. These results, combined with our previous reports, strongly suggest that acrolein may play a critical causal role in the pathogenesis of SCI and that targeting acrolein could be an attractive strategy for repair after SCI.
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Huang HZ, Wen XH, Liu H. Sex differences in brain MRI abnormalities and neurodevelopmental outcomes in a rat model of neonatal hypoxia-ischemia. Int J Neurosci 2015; 126:647-57. [DOI: 10.3109/00207454.2015.1047016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Park J, Zheng L, Marquis A, Walls M, Duerstock B, Pond A, Vega-Alvarez S, Wang H, Ouyang Z, Shi R. Neuroprotective role of hydralazine in rat spinal cord injury-attenuation of acrolein-mediated damage. J Neurochem 2013; 129:339-49. [PMID: 24286176 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Acrolein, an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde and a reactive product of lipid peroxidation, has been suggested as a key factor in neural post-traumatic secondary injury in spinal cord injury (SCI), mainly based on in vitro and ex vivo evidence. Here, we demonstrate an increase of acrolein up to 300%; the elevation lasted at least 2 weeks in a rat SCI model. More importantly, hydralazine, a known acrolein scavenger can provide neuroprotection when applied systemically. Besides effectively reducing acrolein, hydralazine treatment also resulted in significant amelioration of tissue damage, motor deficits, and neuropathic pain. This effect was further supported by demonstrating the ability of hydralazine to reach spinal cord tissue at a therapeutic level following intraperitoneal application. This suggests that hydralazine is an effective neuroprotective agent not only in vitro, but in a live animal model of SCI as well. Finally, the role of acrolein in SCI was further validated by the fact that acrolein injection into the spinal cord caused significant SCI-like tissue damage and motor deficits. Taken together, available evidence strongly suggests a critical causal role of acrolein in the pathogenesis of spinal cord trauma. Since acrolein has been linked to a variety of illness and conditions, we believe that acrolein-scavenging measures have the potential to be expanded significantly ensuring a broad impact on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghyuck Park
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA; Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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5
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Tully M, Shi R. New insights in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis--role of acrolein in neuronal and myelin damage. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:20037-47. [PMID: 24113583 PMCID: PMC3821601 DOI: 10.3390/ijms141020037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by an inappropriate inflammatory reaction resulting in widespread myelin injury along white matter tracts. Neurological impairment as a result of the disease can be attributed to immune-mediated injury to myelin, axons and mitochondria, but the molecular mechanisms underlying the neuropathy remain incompletely understood. Incomplete mechanistic knowledge hinders the development of therapies capable of alleviating symptoms and slowing disease progression in the long-term. Recently, oxidative stress has been implicated as a key component of neural tissue damage prompting investigation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers as a potential therapeutic option. Despite the establishment of oxidative stress as a crucial process in MS development and progression, ROS scavengers have had limited success in animal studies which has prompted pursuit of an alternative target capable of curtailing oxidative stress. Acrolein, a toxic β-unsaturated aldehyde capable of initiating and perpetuating oxidative stress, has been suggested as a viable point of intervention to guide the development of new treatments. Sequestering acrolein using an FDA-approved compound, hydralazine, offers neuroprotection resulting in dampened symptom severity and slowed disease progression in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice. These results provide promise for therapeutic development, indicating the possible utility of neutralizing acrolein to preserve and improve neurological function in MS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Tully
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; E-Mail:
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Riyi Shi
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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The Neuroprotective Ability of Polyethylene Glycol is Affected by Temperature in Ex Vivo Spinal Cord Injury Model. J Membr Biol 2013; 246:613-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00232-013-9574-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Shi R, Rickett T, Sun W. Acrolein-mediated injury in nervous system trauma and diseases. Mol Nutr Food Res 2011; 55:1320-31. [PMID: 21823221 PMCID: PMC3517031 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Revised: 04/29/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Acrolein, an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, is a ubiquitous pollutant that is also produced endogenously through lipid peroxidation. This compound is hundreds of times more reactive than other aldehydes such as 4-hydroxynonenal, is produced at much higher concentrations, and persists in solution for much longer than better known free radicals. It has been implicated in disease states known to involve chronic oxidative stress, particularly spinal cord injury and multiple sclerosis. Acrolein may overwhelm the anti-oxidative systems of any cell by depleting glutathione reserves, preventing glutathione regeneration, and inactivating protective enzymes. On the cellular level, acrolein exposure can cause membrane damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and myelin disruption. Such pathologies can be exacerbated by increased concentrations or duration of exposure, and can occur in normal tissue incubated with injured spinal cord, showing that acrolein can act as a diffusive agent, spreading secondary injury. Several chemical species are capable of binding and inactivating acrolein. Hydralazine in particular can reduce acrolein concentrations and inhibit acrolein-mediated pathologies in vivo. Acrolein scavenging appears to be a novel effective treatment, which is primed for rapid translation to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riyi Shi
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1244, USA.
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Shi Y, Sun W, McBride JJ, Cheng JX, Shi R. Acrolein induces myelin damage in mammalian spinal cord. J Neurochem 2011; 117:554-64. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07226.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the US, with secondary damage following the initial insult contributing significantly to overall poor outcome. Prior investigations have shown that the metabolism of certain polyamines such as spermine, spermidine, and putrescine are elevated in ischemic parenchyma, resulting in an increase in their metabolite concentration. Polyamine metabolites tend to be cytotoxic, leading to neuronal injury in the penumbra following stroke and expansion of the area of infarcted tissue. Although the precise mechanism is unclear, the presence of reactive aldehydes produced through polyamine metabolism, such as 3-aminopropanal and acrolein, have been shown to correlate with the incidence of cerebral vasospasm, disruption of oxidative metabolism and mitochondrial functioning, and disturbance of cellular calcium ion channels. Regulation of the polyamine metabolic pathway, therefore, may have the potential to limit injury following cerebral ischemia. To this end, we review this pathway in detail with an emphasis on clinical applicability.
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Hamann K, Durkes A, Ouyang H, Uchida K, Pond A, Shi R. Critical role of acrolein in secondary injury following ex vivo spinal cord trauma. J Neurochem 2008; 107:712-21. [PMID: 18710419 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05622.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) is characterized by the initial, primary injury followed by secondary injury processes in which oxidative stress is a critical component. Secondary injury processes not only exacerbate pathology at the site of primary injury, but also result in spreading of injuries to the adjacent, otherwise healthy tissue. The lipid peroxidation byproduct acrolein has been implicated as one potential mediator of secondary injury. To further and rigorously elucidate the role of acrolein in secondary injury, a unique ex vivo model is utilized to isolate the detrimental effects of mechanical injury from toxins such as acrolein that are produced endogenously following SCI. We demonstrate that (i) acrolein-Lys adducts are capable of diffusing from compressed tissue to adjacent, otherwise uninjured tissue; (ii) secondary injury by itself produces significant membrane damage and increased superoxide production; and (iii) these injuries are significantly attenuated by the acrolein scavenger hydralazine. Furthermore, hydralazine treatment results in significantly less membrane damage 2 h following compression injury, but not immediately after. These findings support our hypothesis that, following SCI, acrolein is increased to pathologic concentrations, contributes significantly to secondary injury, and thus represents a novel target for scavenging to promote improved recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Hamann
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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Hamann K, Nehrt G, Ouyang H, Duerstock B, Shi R. Hydralazine inhibits compression and acrolein-mediated injuries in ex vivo spinal cord. J Neurochem 2007; 104:708-18. [PMID: 17995940 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05002.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that acrolein, a lipid peroxidation byproduct, is significantly increased following spinal cord injury in vivo, and that exposure to neuronal cells results in oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, increased membrane permeability, impaired axonal conductivity, and eventually cell death. Acrolein thus may be a key player in the pathogenesis of spinal cord injury, where lipid peroxidation is known to be involved. The current study demonstrates that the acrolein scavenger hydralazine protects against not only acrolein-mediated injury, but also compression in guinea pig spinal cord ex vivo. Specifically, hydralazine (500 mumol/L to 1 mmol/L) can significantly alleviate acrolein (100-500 mumol/L)-induced superoxide production, glutathione depletion, mitochondrial dysfunction, loss of membrane integrity, and reduced compound action potential conduction. Additionally, 500 mumol/L hydralazine significantly attenuated compression-mediated membrane disruptions at 2 and 3 h following injury. This was consistent with our findings that acrolein-lys adducts were increased following compression injury ex vivo, an effect that was prevented by hydralazine treatment. These findings provide further evidence for the role of acrolein in spinal cord injury, and suggest that acrolein-scavenging drugs such as hydralazine may represent a novel therapy to effectively reduce oxidative stress in disorders such as spinal cord injury and neurodegenerative diseases, where oxidative stress is known to play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Hamann
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Center for Paralysis Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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12
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Mert T. Sucrose-gap technique: Advantages and limitations. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY+ 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s11062-007-0031-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Liu-Snyder P, Logan MP, Shi R, Smith DT, Borgens RB. Neuroprotection from secondary injury by polyethylene glycol requires its internalization. J Exp Biol 2007; 210:1455-62. [PMID: 17401128 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is well known to both fuse and repair cell membranes. This capability has been exploited for such diverse usages as the construction of hybridomas and as a reparative agent following neurotrauma. The latter development has proceeded through preclinical testing in cases of naturally induced paraplegia in dogs. The mechanisms of action of polymer-mediated neurorepair/neuroprotection are still under investigation. It is likely that the unique interaction of hydrophilic polymers with the mechanical properties of cell membranes in concert with an ability to interfere with mechanisms of secondary injury such as the production of highly reactive oxygen species (ROS or `free radicals') is the basis for neuroprotection by polymers.
Here we provide further evidence that the ability of PEG to reduce or limit secondary injury and/or lipid peroxidation (LPO) of membranes requires entry of PEG into the cytosol, further suggesting a physical interaction with the membranes of organelles such as mitochondria as the initial event leading to neurorepair/neuroprotection.
We have evaluated this relationship in vitro using acrolein, a potent endogenous toxin that is a product of LPO. Acrolein can pass through cell membranes with ease, inducing progressive LPO in `bystander' cells, and the production of even more acrolein by inducing its own production. Immediate application of PEG (10 mmol l–1, 2000 Da) to poisoned neurons in vitro was unable to rescue them from necrosis and death. Furthermore, three-dimensional confocal microscopy of fluorescently decorated PEG shows that it does not enter these cells for up to 2 h after application. By this time the mechanisms of necrosis are likely irreversible. Additionally,severe oxygen and or glucose deprivation of spinal cord white matter in vitro also initiates LPO. Addition of potent free radical scavengers such as ascorbic acid or superoxide dismutase (SOD) is able to interfere with this process, but PEG is not. Taken together, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that PEG is able to rescue mechanically damaged cells, based on a restructuring of the damaged plasmalemma. Furthermore, in compromised cells with an intact cell membrane, PEG must first gain access to the cytosol where this same capability may be useful in restoring the integrity of cellular organelles such as mitochondria, though the intracellular concentration of the polymer must be significant relative to the concentration of toxins produced by LPO in order to rescue the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peishan Liu-Snyder
- Center for Paralysis Research, School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Liu-Snyder P, McNally H, Shi R, Borgens RB. Acrolein-mediated mechanisms of neuronal death. J Neurosci Res 2006; 84:209-18. [PMID: 16619238 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that traumatic injury in the central nervous system can be viewed as a primary injury and a secondary injury. Increases in oxidative stress lead to breakdown of membrane lipids (lipid peroxidation) during secondary injury. Acrolein, an alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehyde, together with other aldehydes, increases as a result of self-propagating lipid peroxidation. Historically, most research on the pathology of secondary injury has focused on reactive oxygen species (ROS) rather than lipid peroxidation products. Little is known about the toxicology and cell death mediated by these aldehydes. In this study, we investigated and characterized certain features of cell death induced by acrolein on PC12 cells as well as cells from dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and sympathetic ganglion in vitro. In the companion paper, we evaluated a possible means to interfere with this toxicity by application of a compound that can bind to and inactivate acrolein. Here we use both light and atomic force microscopy to study cell morphology after exposure to acrolein. Administration of 100 microM acrolein caused a dramatic change in cell morphology as early as 4 hr. Cytoskeletal structures significantly deteriorated after exposure to 100 microM acrolein as demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy, whereas calpain activity increased significantly at this concentration. Cell viability assays indicated significant cell death with 100 microM acrolein by 4 hr. Caspase 3 activity and DNA fragmentation assays were performed and supported the notion that 100 microM acrolein induced PC12 cell death by the mechanism of necrosis, not apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peishan Liu-Snyder
- Center for Paralysis Research, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2096, USA
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Logan MP, Parker S, Shi R. Glutathione and ascorbic acid enhance recovery of Guinea pig spinal cord white matter following ischemia and acrolein exposure. Pathobiology 2005; 72:171-8. [PMID: 16127292 DOI: 10.1159/000086786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2004] [Accepted: 12/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We have shown that acrolein, a lipid peroxidation byproduct, can inflict significant damage in isolated spinal cord white matter following oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). The mechanism of such acrolein-induced damage is unclear. The aim of this study was to examine whether glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid, two reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers, can alleviate functional and anatomical damage due to acrolein. METHODS We used an OGD injury model with isolated guinea pig spinal cord white matter. Sucrose gap recording was used to monitor axonal impulse conduction, and a horseradish peroxidase exclusion test was employed to determine membrane integrity. The functional and anatomical parameters were compared in three groups: acrolein, acrolein/GSH and acrolein/ascorbic acid. RESULTS We found that while GSH resulted in an 87% recovery of compound action potential conductance, ascorbic acid produced a 97% recovery, compared with a 69% recovery in an injured group without treatment. It is noted that GSH, and to a lesser extent ascorbic acid, preferentially enhanced functional recovery in smaller axons. CONCLUSION Acrolein-induced neuronal damage is likely mediated by ROS. Furthermore, GSH and ascorbic acid are effective in suppressing acrolein and free radical-induced injury in spinal cord white matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Peasley Logan
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Center for Paralysis Research, School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1244, USA.
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Abstract
Reactive oxygen species and resultant lipid peroxidation (LPO) have been associated with central nervous system trauma. Acrolein (2-propenal) and 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) are the most toxic byproducts of LPO, with detrimental effects in various types of cells. In this study, we used immunoblotting techniques to detect the accumulation of protein-bound acrolein and HNE. We report that protein-bound acrolein and HNE were significantly increased in guinea pig spinal cord following a controlled compression injury. The acrolein and HNE protein-adducts increased in the damaged spinal cord as early as 4 h after injury, reached a peak at 24 h after injury, and remained at a significantly high level up to 7 days after injury. Such increase of protein adducts was also observed in the adjacent segments of the injury site beginning at 24 h post injury. These results suggest that products of lipid peroxidation, especially acrolein, may play a critical role in the secondary neuronal degeneration, which follows mechanical insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Luo
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Institute for Applied Neurology, Center for Paralysis Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Luo J, Shi R. Acrolein induces axolemmal disruption, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial impairment in spinal cord tissue. Neurochem Int 2004; 44:475-86. [PMID: 15209416 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2003.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Acrolein, a byproduct of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, has been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, but not in spinal cord trauma, as a possible key factor in neuronal degeneration. Using an isolated guinea pig spinal cord model, we have found that acrolein, in a dose- and time-dependent manner, inflicts severe membrane disruption, a factor thought to be critical in triggering axonal deterioration and cell death. The concentration threshold of such detrimental effect is shown to be around 1 microM when acrolein was exposed for 4 h. The membrane damage is likely mediated in part by reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, which were elevated in response to acrolein exposure. Antioxidants were able to significantly reduce acrolein-mediated membrane disruption which further supports the role of reactive oxygen species in the loss of membrane integrity. Mitochondrial function was also impaired after acrolein exposure which not only implicates but emphasizes the role of this organelle in reactive oxygen species generation. In summary, our data strongly suggest that at a clinically relevant concentration, acrolein can severely compromise membrane integrity and may further serve as an initiating toxin triggering secondary injury cascades following the initial physical insult to the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Luo
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Center for Paralysis Research, Institute for Applied Neurology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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