Predictors of Symptom Severity in Patients With Chronic Prostatitis and Interstitial Cystitis

Animal models of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome

Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome (IC/BPS) is a chronic disorder characterized by pelvic and/or bladder pain, along with lower urinary tract symptoms that have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life. The diverse range of symptoms and underlying causes in IC/BPS patients pose a significant challenge for effective disease management and the development of new and effective treatments. To facilitate the development of innovative therapies for IC/BPS, numerous preclinical animal models have been developed, each focusing on distinct pathophysiological components such as localized urothelial permeability or inflammation, psychological stress, autoimmunity, and central sensitization. However, since the precise etiopathophysiology of IC/BPS remains undefined, these animal models have primarily aimed to replicate the key clinical symptoms of bladder hypersensitivity and pain to enhance the translatability of potential therapeutics. Several animal models have now been characterized to mimic the major symptoms of IC/BPS, and significant progress has been made in refining these models to induce chronic symptomatology that more closely resembles the IC/BPS phenotype. Nevertheless, it's important to note that no single model can fully replicate all aspects of the human disease. When selecting an appropriate model for preclinical therapeutic evaluation, consideration must be given to the specific pathology believed to underlie the development of IC/BPS symptoms in a particular patient group, as well as the type and severity of the model, its duration, and the proposed intervention's mechanism of action. Therefore, it is likely that different models will continue to be necessary for preclinical drug development, depending on the unique etiology of IC/BPS being investigated.

[Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome]

Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) is defined as chronic pain or discomfort in the pelvic region for at least 3 of the past 6 months. It is variably associated with lower urinary tract symptoms, psychosocial consequences, and sexual dysfunction. Specific test systems or biomarkers for a definitive diagnosis are still not available. The purposes of the basic diagnostic assessment are to determine the individual spectrum of symptoms and to rule out differential diagnoses of pelvic pain. Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) like the National Institutes of Health Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index (NIH-CPSI) are valuable instruments for the initial diagnostic assessment and to evaluate treatment response. Classification systems like UPOINTS (urinary, psychosocial, organ specific, infection, neurologic/systemic, tenderness of skeletal muscles, sexual dysfunction) are valuable tools to determine the individual spectrum of symptoms, to guide the adapted diagnostic assessment, and to identify relevant targets for a multimodal and tailored treatment. Close urological monitoring of CP/CPPS patients is usually necessary, especially to minimize the unwarranted use of antibiotics in the case of undulating complaints.

Organ cross-sensitization mechanisms in chronic diseases related to the genitourinary tract

There are various refractory chronic inflammatory diseases related to the genitourinary tract, such as interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome. It has been reported that in the general population, these diseases are related to other chronic illnesses, such as irritable bowel syndrome or vulvodynia. Herein, we review papers regarding pelvic organ cross-sensitization, a factor which is considered to contribute to these relationships. Several other researchers and ourselves have reported that noxious stimuli from a diseased pelvic organ are transmitted to an adjacent normal structure via shared sensory neural pathways at the prespinal, spinal, and supraspinal levels, resulting in functional changes in the adjacent normal structure. In conclusion, since there are few treatments to cure interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome completely, further studies regarding organ cross-sensitization may provide new insights into the pathophysiology and treatment strategies for these diseases.

Chronic Pelvic Pain Patients Demonstrate Higher Catastrophizing in Association with Pelvic Symptoms and Comorbid Pain Diagnoses

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the relationship between catastrophization and pelvic pain symptomatology in chronic pelvic pain (CPP) patients using standardized questionnaires.

METHODS

CPP patients completed standardized questionnaires which included: genitourinary pain index, patient health questionnaire for anxiety and depression, interstitial cystitis symptom index, and pelvic floor distress inventory. Scores and number of comorbidities were compared to Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) by linear regression. Patients categorized as "extreme catastrophizing" (PCS score ≥30), traditionally associated with worse outcomes in the pain literature [10-11], were also analyzed separately.

RESULTS

184 patients were included (mean age 42 years, N = 23 male). Higher number of pain comorbidities was correlated to PCS (P < .001) as well as higher scores on all standardized questionnaires (P < .001). Forty-four percent of patients (81/184) were extreme catastrophizers and scored significantly worse on all standardized measures when compared to nonextreme catastrophizers. Mean scores for nonextreme vs extreme catastrophizers were: genitourinary pain index (25.7 ± 6.8 vs 32.7 ± 6.5, P < .001), interstitial cystitis symptom index (6.5 ± 4.7 vs 9.4 ± 5.8, P < .001), pelvic floor distress inventory (88.8 ± 52 vs 121.1 ± 62.8, P < .001), patient health questionnaire anxiety (1.7 ± 2.0 vs 3.6 ± 2.1, P < .001), and depression (1.4 ± 1.6 vs 3.3 ± 2.0, P < .001). Number of comorbidities was not significant predictor of extreme catastrophizing (3.5 vs 3.7 P = .22).

CONCLUSION

Higher scores on standardized questionnaires and more comorbidities was associated with more catastrophizing in CPP patients. This study highlights the significance of standardized questionnaires, including the PCS, to predict which patients may be extreme catastrophizers and thus subject to worse outcomes. Future studies are needed to look at catastrophization as a potentially modifiable and treatable risk factor.

[Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome]

Chronic prostatitis (CP, or chronic pelvic pain syndrome, CPPS) is defined as chronic pain or discomfort in the pelvic region for at least 3 of the past 6 months, often accompanied by lower urinary tract symptoms, psychosocial impairments and sexual dysfunction. Currently, no biomarkers or clinical test procedures for a definitive diagnosis are available. The main objectives for the diagnostic assessment are to exclude differential diagnoses of pelvic pain and to determine the individual symptom profile of the patient. The UPOINTS classification identifies the individual clinical profile of the patient, provides guidance for the necessary diagnostic steps and is the foundation for a tailored multimodal, symptom-oriented and personalized treatment concept. Regular follow-up controls are needed to monitor the treatment response with the option to modify if necessary.

Small Fiber Polyneuropathy Is Prevalent in Patients Experiencing Complex Chronic Pelvic Pain

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the prevalence of small fiber polyneuropathy (SFPN) in patients with refractory chronic pelvic pain (CPP).

DESIGN

Retrospective study of prospective database.

SUBJECTS

Participants were complex CPP patients recruited from subspecity referral clinics defined as those who were refractory to initial treatment and/or exhibited comorbid pain syndromes at initial presentation.

METHODS

Comprehensive treatment history for CPP was obtained, and participants referred as above; 3-mm punch biopsies were obtained of the lower extremity and sent to diagnostic reference labs to evaluate for SFPN. The reported lab sensitivity and specificity for SFPN are 78-92% and 65-90%, respectively.

RESULTS

Twenty-five of 39 patients (64%) were positive for SFPN. Comorbid conditions noted in our population included gastroesophageal reflux disease (46%), migraine (38%), irritable bowel syndrome (33%), lower back pain (33%), fibromyalgia (38%), endometriosis (15%), interstitial cystitis (18%), vulvodynia (5%), and other chronic pain syndromes (36%).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of SFPN in our specialty referral patients with complex CPP is remarkably high vs published general population prevalence data (53/100,000). Identification of SFPN in this complex population shifts the focus from undefined syndromes to symptom complexes with linked potentially treatable mechanisms (e.g., SFPN, central sensitization). Most CPP patients with SFPN are undiagnosed. Considering the diagnosis may expand treatment options beyond conventional or so-called adjuvant analgesics. Treatment may expand to therapies such as IV lidocaine, IVIG, or other immunomodulatory options. In addition, the value to the patient of receiving a diagnosis for a multisystem or refractory pain syndrome, often attributed to negative psychologic factors, cannot be underestimated. Identifying SFPN should be contemplated in CPP patients who present with multisystem pain or who have not responded to initial evaluation and management.

Visceral Pain

Most of us live blissfully unaware of the orchestrated function that our internal organs conduct. When this peace is interrupted, it is often by routine sensations of hunger and urge. However, for >20% of the global population, chronic visceral pain is an unpleasant and often excruciating reminder of the existence of our internal organs. In many cases, there is no obvious underlying pathological cause of the pain. Accordingly, chronic visceral pain is debilitating, reduces the quality of life of sufferers, and has large concomitant socioeconomic costs. In this review, we highlight key mechanisms underlying chronic abdominal and pelvic pain associated with functional and inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts. This includes how the colon and bladder are innervated by specialized subclasses of spinal afferents, how these afferents become sensitized in highly dynamic signaling environments, and the subsequent development of neuroplasticity within visceral pain pathways. We also highlight key contributing factors, including alterations in commensal bacteria, altered mucosal permeability, epithelial interactions with afferent nerves, alterations in immune or stress responses, and cross talk between these two adjacent organs.

Cross-organ sensitization between the colon and bladder: to pee or not to pee?

Chronic abdominal and pelvic pain are common debilitating clinical conditions experienced by millions of patients around the globe. The origin of such pain commonly arises from the intestine and bladder, which share common primary roles (the collection, storage, and expulsion of waste). These visceral organs are located in close proximity to one another and also share common innervation from spinal afferent pathways. Chronic abdominal pain, constipation, or diarrhea are primary symptoms for patients with irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory bowel disease. Chronic pelvic pain and urinary urgency and frequency are primary symptoms experienced by patients with lower urinary tract disorders such as interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome. It is becoming clear that these symptoms and clinical entities do not occur in isolation, with considerable overlap in symptom profiles across patient cohorts. Here we review recent clinical and experimental evidence documenting the existence of "cross-organ sensitization" between the colon and bladder. In such circumstances, colonic inflammation may result in profound changes to the sensory pathways innervating the bladder, resulting in severe bladder dysfunction.

Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome is associated with Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Population-based Study

This study aimed to examine this association by comparing the risk of prior irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) between patients with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) and matched controls in Taiwan. Data were retrieved from the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2005. This study included 4870 cases with CP/CPPS and 4870 age-matched controls. Conditional logistic regressions were conducted to examine associations of CP/CPPS with previously diagnosed IBS. We found that a total of 753 (7.7%) of the 9740 sampled patients had IBS prior to the index date; IBS was found in 497 (10.2%) cases and in 256 (5.3%) controls. Conditional logistic regression revealed a higher odds ratio (OR) of prior IBS (OR 2.05, 95% CI = 1.75–2.40) for cases than controls. Furthermore, after adjusting for the patients’ monthly income, geographical location, urbanization level, and hypertension and coronary heart disease, the conditional logistic regression analysis indicated that cases were more likely than controls to have prior IBS (OR = 1.96, 95% CI = 1.67–2.29). Furthermore, we found that CP/CPPS was consistently and significantly associated with prior IBS regardless of age group. We concluded that the diagnosis of CP/CPPS was associated with previously diagnosed IBS. Urologists should be aware of the association between CP/CPPS and IBS when treating patients.

[CLINICAL EFFICACY OF DIETARY MANIPULATION AS COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE THERAPIES ON FEMALE INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS PATIENTS]

(Objectives) We examined the clinical efficacy of dietary manipulation (DM) for female patients with interstitial cystitis (IC) in stable condition who were followed in our hospital. (Patients and methods) This study included 20 female patients with IC in rather stable condition who were followed at our hospital. In cooperation with the nutrition control team, we created a basic IC diet menu for 1 month (total daily calories, 1,500 kcal; protein, 65 g; fat, 40 g; carbohydrate, 220 g; water, 1,000 ml; salt, 7 g). Data regarding daily food intake and food-related symptoms were collected by detailed interview of each patient conducted by the doctors, nurses, and nutritionists at our hospital. In accordance with the abovementioned nutrition control, we set meal menu to control IC symptoms and advised the patients to reduce the intake of specific food items to the maximum possible extent.The following food items were removed from or restricted in the diet of patients: tomatoes, tomato products, soy, tofu product (seasoning was acceptable), spices (pepper, curry powder, mustard, horseradish, etc.), excessive potassium, citrus, high-acidity-inducing substances (caffeine, carbonate, and citric acid), etc. We evaluated the following factors to determine the efficacy of this diet menu 3 months after the start of the intervention: O'Leary-Sant symptom index (OSSI), O'Leary-Sant problem index (OSPI), urgency visual analogue scale (UVAS) score, (0, no urgency; 10, severe urgency), bladder or pelvic pain VAS (PVAS) score, (0, no pain; 10, worst possible pain), and numerical patient-reported quality of life (QOL) index (0, highly satisfied; 6, highly dissatisfied). (Results) OSSI and OSPI improved from 11.7 to 10.1 (p<0.0001), and from 10.7 to 8.8 (p=0.01), respectively. The UVAS score significantly reduced from 6.4 to 4.8, and the PVAS score significantly improved from 6.5 to 4.8 (p<0.0001). The patient-reported QOL index significantly improved from 5.1 to 3.9 (p<0.0001). (Conclusion) Although repeated notes were taken and patients who were followed up for a long term were consulted on the meal, as appropriate, at the time of visit, DM was found to alleviate the symptoms of IC. DM as a systematic treatment modality for IC should be attempted more aggressively because of its non-invasiveness, without alterations to the other IC treatments.

Diagnosis and treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a consensus guideline

Objectives

To improve awareness and recognition of chronic bacterial prostatitis (CBP) and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) among non‐specialists and patients. To provide guidance to healthcare professionals treating patients with CBP and CP/CPPS, in both non‐specialist and specialist settings. To promote efficient referral of care between non‐specialists and specialists and the involvement of the multidisciplinary team (MDT).

Patients and Methods

The guideline population were men with CBP or CP/CPPS (persistent or recurrent symptoms and no other urogenital pathology for ≥3 of the previous 6 months). Consensus recommendations for the guidelines were based on a search to identify literature on the diagnosis and management of CBP and CP/CPPS (published between 1999 and February 2014). A Delphi panel process was used where high‐quality, published evidence was lacking.

Results

CBP and CP/CPPS can present with a wide range of clinical manifestations. The four main symptom domains are urogenital pain, lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS – voiding or storage symptoms), psychological issues and sexual dysfunction. Patients should be managed according to their individual symptom pattern. Options for first‐line treatment include antibiotics, α‐adrenergic antagonists (if voiding LUTS are present) and simple analgesics. Repeated use of antibiotics, such as quinolones, should be avoided if there is no obvious symptomatic benefit from infection control or cultures do not support an infectious cause. Early use of treatments targeting neuropathic pain and/or referral to specialist services should be considered for patients who do not respond to initial measures. An MDT approach (urologists, pain specialists, nurse specialists, specialist physiotherapists, general practitioners, cognitive behavioural therapists/psychologists, and sexual health specialists) is recommended. Patients should be fully informed about the possible underlying causes and treatment options, including an explanation of the chronic pain cycle.

Conclusion

Chronic prostatitis can present with a wide variety of signs and symptoms. Identification of individual symptom patterns and a symptom‐based treatment approach are recommended. Further research is required to evaluate management options for CBP and CP/CPPS.

Comparison of baseline urological symptoms in men and women in the MAPP research cohort

PURPOSE

The clinical features of the interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome are similar to those of the chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome. However, to our knowledge no studies have directly compared the characteristics of these syndromes in men and women.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The MAPP Research Network recruited 191 men and 233 women with IC/BPS or CP/CPPS. Baseline data included demographics, Interstitial Cystitis Symptom Index and Problem Index scores; Genitourinary Pain Index score; American Urological Association Symptom Index score; Likert scales to assess urinary urgency, frequency, pain and overall symptom severity; and a single question about the most bothersome pelvic symptom.

RESULTS

After adjustment for age, income and symptom duration, measures of pain severity were similar across genders. Mean scores for the ICSI, ICPI and AUASI were significantly higher in women than in men, reflecting more bladder focused symptoms in women. The most bothersome single symptom in men as well as in women was pain in the pubic/bladder area (men 34%, women 58%). The characteristics of the men and women in the MAPP cohort were similar to those reported in other research cohorts for IC/BPS and CP/CPPS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that pain severity is similar for both genders and that bladder focused symptoms (urgency, suprapubic pain, frequency) are more common in women. However, a substantial proportion of men also reported these types of bladder symptoms.

Assessing psychological factors, social aspects and psychiatric co-morbidity associated with Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome (CP/CPPS) in men -- a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome (CP/CPPS) is a chronic pain disease with high prevalence rates and substantial health care costs. An interdisciplinary classification system is commonly used (UPOINT) which includes psychosocial factors. Nevertheless, psychosocial influences on CP/CPPS only recently became a research focus. Therefore, we aimed to synthesize the existing data and to identify further research topics. Then, based on our results, diagnosis and treatment can be improved.

METHODS

In a systematic review conducted according to the PRISMA reporting guidelines we searched different databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsychINFO) using the broad search terms "chronic pelvic pain syndrome AND men". Two raters independently screened the literature and assessed the risk of bias.

RESULTS

We included 69 original research articles which considered psychosocial variables. We found studies investigating different psychosocial factors (pain catastrophizing, stress, personality factors, social aspects), co-morbid psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety and trauma-related disorders, somatization disorder, substance abuse) and Quality of Life (QoL). In addition, there is a high risk of bias in most studies e.g. concerning the study design or the measures.

CONCLUSIONS

There is evidence suggesting that psychological factors are important in understanding CP/CPPS. However, research concentrated on a few aspects while the others were not covered adequately. We found evidence of a higher number of psychosocial factors and psychiatric co-morbidities than is currently included in the UPOINT system. More high quality research is needed to understand the interplay of psychosocial factors in CP/CPPS. Furthermore, these factors should be incorporated into treatment approaches.

Chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a clinical enigma

Chronic nonbacterial prostatitis is an ill-defined, painful clinical condition that is characterized by various nonspecific symptoms, some of which are related to urination or the male reproductive organs. Urologists diagnose this particular condition when the symptoms are not associated with urinary bacterial growth before and after transrectal prostate massage. In this review, we describe the recommended and optional tests that can be performed in these cases. There is significant overlap between chronic nonbacterial prostatitis and other unexplained pain conditions, raising the question as to whether the prostate is the culprit. The sources and mediators of pain and the psychological aspects of this complex condition are discussed. Treatments consist of traditional antibiotics and α-blockers. Because the pain relief is often temporary, patients seek other solutions. Various therapeutics have been introduced to satisfy the expectations of patients and physicians. We discuss other pain medications, as well as intraprostatic drug injections and shockwave therapy. Importantly, however, not all of these suggestions have been widely accepted by urologists or pain clinics.

Temporal ordering of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and non-bladder conditions

OBJECTIVE

To examine the prevalence and timing of nonbladder conditions in a community cohort of women with symptoms of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS).

METHODS

As part of the Rand Interstitial Cystitis Epidemiology (RICE) study, we identified 3397 community women who met a validated case definition for IC/BPS symptoms. Each completed a survey asking if they had a physician diagnose them as having irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, migraines, panic attacks, or depression. If a positive response was received, subjects were asked to provide the age of symptom onset. All subjects were also asked to provide the date of IC/BPS symptom onset.

RESULTS

A total of 2185 women reported a diagnosis of at least one of the nonbladder conditions. Onset of bladder symptoms was not consistently earlier or later than the onset of nonbladder symptoms. Depression tended to occur earlier (P < .05), whereas fibromyalgia generally occurred later (P < .05). Mean age of onset was lowest for migraine symptoms, depression symptoms, and panic attacks symptoms, and greatest for fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome symptoms. Mean age of irritable bowel syndrome and IC/BPS symptom onset was between these other conditions.

CONCLUSION

These findings confirm the common co-occurrence of IC/BPS with chronic nonbladder conditions. In women with IC/BPS symptoms and coexistent nonbladder conditions, bladder symptoms do not uniformly predate the nonbladder symptoms. These observations suggest that phenotypic progression from isolated bladder symptoms to regional/systemic symptoms is not a predominant pattern in IC/BPS, although such a pattern may occur in a subset of individuals.

Evidence for overlap between urological and nonurological unexplained clinical conditions

PURPOSE

Unexplained clinical conditions share common features such as pain, fatigue, disability out of proportion to physical examination findings, inconsistent laboratory abnormalities, and an association with stress and psychosocial factors. We examined the extent of the overlap among urological and nonurological unexplained clinical conditions characterized by pain. We describe the limitations of previous research and suggest several possible explanatory models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using hallmark symptoms and syndromes as search terms a search of 12 databases identified a total of 1,037 full-length published articles in 8 languages from 1966 to April 2008. The search focused on the overlap of chronic pelvic pain, interstitial cystitis, painful bladder syndrome, chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome or vulvodynia with fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, temporomandibular joint and muscle disorders or irritable bowel syndrome. We abstracted information on authorship, type of case and control groups, eligibility criteria, case definitions, study methods and major findings.

RESULTS

The literature suggests considerable comorbidity between urological and nonurological unexplained clinical conditions. The most robust evidence for overlap was for irritable bowel syndrome and urological unexplained syndromes with some estimates of up to 79% comorbidity between chronic pelvic pain and symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. However, most studies were limited by methodological problems, such as varying case definitions and selection of controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The overlap between urological and selected nonurological unexplained clinical conditions is substantial. Future research should focus on using standardized definitions, and rigorously designed, well controlled studies to further assess comorbidity, clarify the magnitude of the association and examine common pathophysiological mechanisms.

The prevalence and overlap of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome in men: results of the RAND Interstitial Cystitis Epidemiology male study

PURPOSE

As part of the RICE (RAND Interstitial Cystitis Epidemiology) study, we developed validated case definitions to identify interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome in women and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome in men. Using population based screening methods, we applied these case definitions to determine the prevalence of these conditions in men.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 6,072 households were contacted by telephone to screen for men who had symptoms of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome or chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome. An initial 296 men screened positive, of whom 149 met the inclusionary criteria and completed the telephone interview. For interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome 2 case definitions were applied (1 with high sensitivity and 1 with high specificity), while for chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome a single case definition (with high sensitivity and specificity) was used. These case definitions were used to classify subjects into groups based on diagnosis.

RESULTS

The interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome weighted prevalence estimates for the high sensitivity and high specificity definitions were 4.2% (3.1-5.3) and 1.9% (1.1-2.7), respectively. The chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome weighted prevalence estimate was 1.8% (0.9-2.7). These values equate to 1,986,972 (95% CI 966,042-2,996,924) men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome and 2,107,727 (95% CI 1,240,485-2,974,969) men with the high specificity definition of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome in the United States. The overlap between men who met the high specificity interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome case definition or the chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome case definition was 17%.

CONCLUSIONS

Symptoms of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome are widespread among men in the United States. The prevalence of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome symptoms in men approaches that in women, suggesting that this condition may be underdiagnosed in the male population.

Overlap between functional GI disorders and other functional syndromes: what are the underlying mechanisms?

BACKGROUND

Irritable bowel syndrome and other gastrointestinal (GI) and non-GI disorders such as functional dyspepsia, fibromyalgia, temporomandibular joint disorder, interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome are known as functional pain syndromes. They commonly coexist within the same individual. The pathophysiologic mechanisms of these disorders are not well understood, but it has been hypothesized that they share a common pathogenesis.

PURPOSE

The objective of this review is to discuss the proposed pathophysiologic mechanisms, which have been similarly studied in these conditions. These mechanisms include enhanced pain perception, altered regional brain activation, infectious etiologies, dysregulations in immune and neuroendocrine function, and genetic susceptibility. Studies suggest that these functional disorders are multifactorial, but factors which increase the vulnerability of developing these conditions are shared.

Diet and its role in interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) and comorbid conditions

What's known on the subject? and What does the study add? Nearly 90% of patients with interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) report sensitivities to a wide variety of dietary comestibles. Current questionnaire-based literature suggests that citrus fruits, tomatoes, vitamin C, artificial sweeteners, coffee, tea, carbonated and alcoholic beverages, and spicy foods tend to exacerbate symptoms, while calcium glycerophosphate and sodium bicarbonate tend to improve symptoms. At present we recommend employing a controlled method to determine dietary sensitivities, such as an elimination diet, in order to identify sensitivities while at the same time maintain optimal nutritional intake. We review current literature with regard to diet's effect upon IC/BPS and common comorbidities (irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, neuropathic pain, vulvodynia, and headache) with a focus upon questionnaire-based investigations. We discuss the pathologic mechanisms that may link diet and IC/BPS related-pain, concentrating upon specific comestibles such as acidic foods, foods high in potassium, caffeine, and alcohol. Up to 90% of patients with interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) report sensitivities to a wide variety of comestibles.   Pathological mechanisms suggested to be responsible for the relationship between dietary intake and symptom exacerbation include peripheral and/or central neural upregulation, bladder epithelial dysfunction, and organ 'cross-talk', amongst others.   Current questionnaire-based data suggests that citrus fruits, tomatoes, vitamin C, artificial sweeteners, coffee, tea, carbonated and alcoholic beverages, and spicy foods tend to exacerbate symptoms, while calcium glycerophosphate and sodium bicarbonate tend to improve symptoms. Specific comestible sensitivities varied between patients and may have been influenced by comorbid conditions. This suggests that a controlled method to determine dietary sensitivities, such as an elimination diet, may play an important role in patient management.

Self-reported spousal support modifies the negative impact of pain on disability in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome

OBJECTIVES

To examine changes in the association between pain and patient quality of life (QoL), depressive symptoms, and disability in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) at varying levels of spouse responses to pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

One-hundred eighty-eight men with CP/CPPS completed a questionnaire, including demographic information. The outcome variables were mental QoL (SF-12 MCS), physical QoL (SF-12 PCS), depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale), and disability (Pain Disability Index). Patients also reported on the types of responses they had from their spouses (Multidimensional Pain Inventory), and pain (Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire).

RESULTS

The association between pain and disability was stronger at higher levels of solicitous responses (eg, "Does some of my chores") (β = 0.66, P <.05) than it was at moderate (β = 0.44, P <.05) and lower (β = 0.23, ns) levels. In contrast, the association between pain and disability was stronger at lower levels (β = 0.64, P <.05) of distracting responses (eg, "Tries to get me involved in some activity") than it was at moderate (β = 0.44, P <.05) and higher (β = 0.25, P <.05) levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Solicitous responses to pain increased the negative impact of pain on disability, whereas distracting responses to pain decreased the negative impact of pain on disability in men with CP/CPPS. Solicitous responses may be a reaction to patient pain and associated disability, or may help create or maintain the patient's pain and disability. In either case, distracting rather than solicitous responses to patient pain are to be encouraged in symptom management.

High frequency of chronic bacterial and non-inflammatory prostatitis in infertile patients with prostatitis syndrome plus irritable bowel syndrome

BACKGROUND

Although prostatitis syndrome (PS) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) are common disorders, information on the prevalence of IBS in infertile patients with PS is relatively scanty. Therefore, this study was undertaken to estimate the frequency of PS and IBS and to evaluate the prevalence of the various diagnostic categories of prostatitis.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

This study enrolled 152 patients with PS, diagnosed by the NIH-Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index (NIH-CPSI) in an andrological setting, and 204 patients with IBS, diagnosed according to the Rome III diagnostic criteria in a gastroenterological setting. The patients with PS were asked to fulfill the Rome III questionnaire for IBS, whereas patients with IBS were asked to complete the NIH-CPSI. The simultaneous presence of PS and IBS was observed in 30.2% and 31.8% of the patients screened by andrologists and gastroenterologists, respectively. Altogether, 111 patients had PS plus IBS (31.2%). They had a total NIH-CPSI and pain subscale scores significantly higher than patients with PS alone. Gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with PS plus IBS were similar to those reported by patients with IBS alone and significantly greater in patients with PS alone. Patients with PS plus IBS had a significantly higher frequency of chronic bacterial prostatitis (category II) and lower of non-inflammatory prostatitis (category IIIB), compared to patients with PS alone. The frequency of inflammatory prostatitis (category IIIA) resulted similar.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Prostatitis syndromes and IBS are frequently associated in patients with PS- or IBS-related symptoms. These patients have an increased prevalence of chronic bacterial and non-inflammatory prostatitis.

Cross-talk and sensitization of bladder afferent nerves

The coordination of pelvic physiologic function requires complex integrative sensory pathways that may converge both peripherally and/or centrally. Following a focal, acute irritative or infectious pelvic insult, these same afferent pathways may produce generalized pelvic sensitization or cross-sensitization as we show bi-directionally for the bladder and bowel in an animal model. Single unit bladder afferent recordings following intracolonic irritation reveal direct sensitization to both chemical and mechanical stimuli that's dependent upon both intact bladder sensory (C-fiber) innervation and neuropeptide content. Concurrent mastocytosis (preponderantly neurogenic) likely plays a role in long-term pelvic organ sensitization via the release of nociceptive and afferent-modulating molecules. Prolonged pelvic sensitization as mediated by these convergent and antidromic reflexive pathway may likewise lead to chronic pelvic pain and thus the overlap of chronic pelvic pain disorders.

Psychological distress in twins with urological symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (IC/PBS) is a chronic pain condition with unclear underlying etiology. Our objectives were to determine whether psychological distress was higher in twins with urological symptoms commonly found in IC/PBS than in twins without, and if so, did familial influences contribute to this association.

METHOD

Data from 1165 female twins in a community-based sample were used. Urological symptoms, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety and perceived stress were assessed with standardized questionnaires. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) regression models were used to examine the relationship between psychological distress and urological symptoms.

RESULTS

Compared to unaffected twins, twins with urological symptoms were more likely to report PTSD symptoms (OR=3.9; 95% CI=2.6-5.8), depression (OR=3.1; 95% CI=2.0-5.0), anxiety (OR=3.4; 95% CI=2.3-5.2) and perceived stress (OR=3.2; 95% CI=2.1-4.9). After adjusting for familial influences, the within-pair effects remained significant for PTSD symptoms (OR=2.2; 95% CI=1.2-3.8) and perceived stress (OR=2.2; 95% CI=1.2-3.8).

CONCLUSION

Familial influences partially explained the relationship between indicators of psychological distress and urological symptoms. Future research should examine shared environmental and genetic mechanisms that may further explain this relationship and improve diagnosis and treatment of this unexplained clinical condition.

Severity of interstitial cystitis symptoms and quality of life in female patients

OBJECTIVE

Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a visceral pain syndrome with a profound impact on quality of life (QOL). The main aims of the current study are as follows: (1) to determine possible factors that may increase the severity of symptoms and decrease QOL in women diagnosed with IC; (2) to study how symptom severity affects QOL adjusting for these factors; and (3) to investigate which symptom is most likely to impair IC patients' physical and mental QOL.

METHODS

Forty-one women (age, 20-71 years) with moderate/severe IC enrolled in a clinical trial of intravesical pentosan polysulfate sodium in California (USA) were included in this cross-sectional analysis. Demographic and clinical characteristics were evaluated at baseline using the O'Leary-Sant Interstitial Cystitis Symptom Index (ICSI), pain assessment, urgency scale, voiding log for 24 h, and the Short Form-36 (SF-36).

RESULTS

Being currently unmarried was associated with more severe symptoms. Being unemployed, currently unmarried, obese, never pregnant, and ever use of oral contraceptive were associated with a decrement in at least one QOL domain. Symptom severity was an independent predictor of worse QOL on three domains: bodily pain, general health, and mental health. Pain and nocturia were the only symptoms found to be associated with decline in overall physical quality of life. None of the symptoms had significant impact on the mental component summary of QOL.

CONCLUSIONS

Symptom severity and being currently unmarried were found to be associated with impairment in QOL in IC patients. Managing pain and nocturia may improve the patients' overall physical QOL.

Evidence for overlap between urological and nonurological unexplained clinical conditions

PURPOSE

Unexplained clinical conditions share common features such as pain, fatigue, disability out of proportion to physical examination findings, inconsistent laboratory abnormalities, and an association with stress and psychosocial factors. We examined the extent of the overlap among urological and nonurological unexplained clinical conditions characterized by pain. We describe the limitations of previous research and suggest several possible explanatory models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using hallmark symptoms and syndromes as search terms a search of 12 databases identified a total of 1,037 full-length published articles in 8 languages from 1966 to April 2008. The search focused on the overlap of chronic pelvic pain, interstitial cystitis, painful bladder syndrome, chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome or vulvodynia with fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, temporomandibular joint and muscle disorders or irritable bowel syndrome. We abstracted information on authorship, type of case and control groups, eligibility criteria, case definitions, study methods and major findings.

RESULTS

The literature suggests considerable comorbidity between urological and nonurological unexplained clinical conditions. The most robust evidence for overlap was for irritable bowel syndrome and urological unexplained syndromes with some estimates of up to 79% comorbidity between chronic pelvic pain and symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. However, most studies were limited by methodological problems, such as varying case definitions and selection of controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The overlap between urological and selected nonurological unexplained clinical conditions is substantial. Future research should focus on using standardized definitions, and rigorously designed, well controlled studies to further assess comorbidity, clarify the magnitude of the association and examine common pathophysiological mechanisms.

Increased startle responses in interstitial cystitis: evidence for central hyperresponsiveness to visceral related threat

PURPOSE

Hypersensitivity to visceral stimuli in interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome may result from enhanced responsiveness of affective circuits (including the amygdala complex) and associated central pain amplification. Potentiation of the eyeblink startle reflex under threat is mediated by output from the amygdala complex and, therefore, represents a noninvasive marker to study group differences in responsiveness in this brain circuit.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Acoustic startle responses were examined in female patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (13) and healthy controls (16) during context threat (application of muscle stimulation electrodes to the lower abdomen overlying the bladder), and cued conditions for safety (no stimulation possible), anticipation and imminent threat of aversive abdominal stimulation over the bladder.

RESULTS

Patients showed significantly greater startle responses during nonimminent threat conditions (baseline, safe and anticipation periods) while both groups showed similar robust startle potentiation during the imminent threat condition. Higher rates of anxiety and depression symptoms in the patient group did not account for the group differences in startle reflex magnitude.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to controls, female patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome showed increased activation of a defensive emotional circuit in the context of a threat of abdominal pain. This pattern is similar to that previously reported in patients with anxiety disorders as well as those with irritable bowel syndrome. Since these circuits have an important role in central pain amplification related to affective and cognitive processes, these results support the hypothesis that the observed abnormality may be involved in the enhanced perception of bladder signals associated with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome.

Bladder hyperactivity and increased excitability of bladder afferent neurons associated with reduced expression of Kv1.4 alpha-subunit in rats with cystitis

Hyperexcitability of C-fiber bladder afferent pathways has been proposed to contribute to urinary frequency and bladder pain in chronic bladder inflammation including interstitial cystitis. However, the detailed mechanisms inducing afferent hyperexcitability after bladder inflammation are not fully understood. Thus, we investigated changes in the properties of bladder afferent neurons in rats with bladder inflammation induced by intravesical application of hydrochloric acid. Eight days after the treatment, bladder function and bladder sensation were analyzed using cystometry and an electrodiagnostic device of sensory function (Neurometer), respectively. Whole cell patch-clamp recordings and immunohistochemical staining were also performed in dissociated bladder afferent neurons identified by a retrograde tracing dye, Fast Blue, injected into the bladder wall. Cystitis rats showed urinary frequency that was inhibited by pretreatment with capsaicin and bladder hyperalgesia mediated by C-fibers. Capsaicin-sensitive bladder afferent neurons from sham rats exhibited high thresholds for spike activation and a phasic firing pattern, whereas those from cystitis rats showed lower thresholds for spike activation and a tonic firing pattern. Transient A-type K(+) current density in capsaicin-sensitive bladder afferent neurons was significantly smaller in cystitis rats than in sham rats, although sustained delayed-rectifier K(+) current density was not altered after cystitis. The expression of voltage-gated K(+) Kv1.4 alpha-subunits, which can form A-type K(+) channels, was reduced in bladder afferent neurons from cystitis rats. These data suggest that bladder inflammation increases bladder afferent neuron excitability by decreasing expression of Kv1.4 alpha-subunits. Similar changes in capsaicin-sensitive C-fiber afferent terminals may contribute to bladder hyperactivity and hyperalgesia due to acid-induced bladder inflammation.

Mental health diagnoses in patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a case/control study

PURPOSE

We compared the rate of mental health disorders in male and female patients with pelvic pain and control subjects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male patients with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (174) and female patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (111) were identified from a urology tertiary care clinic population. A control group consisting of 72 men and 175 women was also recruited. Subjects completed self-administered questionnaires that included items about demographics, medical history, medication use and urological symptoms. The Patient Health Questionnaire was used to identify depression and panic disorder. Multiple logistic regression was used to determine odds ratios for the presence of a mental health diagnosis.

RESULTS

Mental health disorders were identified in 13% of the chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome cases and 4% of male controls (OR 2.0, p = 0.04), as well as in 23% of interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome cases and 3% of female controls (OR 8.2, p <0.0001). Disease status (case vs control) (OR 10.4, p = 0.001) and income greater than $50,000 (OR 0.34, p = 0.008) were the only 2 variables independently predictive of the presence of a mental health diagnosis. Age, gender, race/ethnicity and education were not predictive. Medications for anxiety, depression or stress were being taken by 18% of patients with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome, 37% of those with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome, 7% of male controls and 13% of female controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Depression and panic disorder are significantly more common in men and women with pelvic pain conditions than in controls. Medication use data suggest that anxiety and depression may be more difficult to treat in patients with urological pain syndromes than in controls.

Prevalence of and risk factors for prostatitis: population based assessment using physician assigned diagnoses

PURPOSE

Previous studies to assess risk factors for prostatitis used patient self-reported data and, therefore, they were subject to recall bias. We 1) used coded physician diagnoses to calculate the prevalence of prostatitis and 2) compared these patients with matched controls to identify medical conditions that are associated with prostatitis. Subjects were male enrollees in the Kaiser Permanente Northwest, Portland, Oregon health maintenance organization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A computer search of the Kaiser Permanente Northwest administrative database was performed for May 1, 1998 to April 30, 2004 to identify men with a coded diagnosis of prostatitis. Prostatitis cases were each age matched with 3 controls and the medical diagnoses (using 3-digit International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision codes) assigned to these 2 groups were compared.

RESULTS

A prostatitis diagnosis was present in 4.5% of the male population. There were 37 diagnoses that were significantly more common in cases than in controls (p <0.0001). Most of them were other urological codes to describe prostatitis symptoms, unexplained physical symptoms in other organ systems and psychiatric diagnoses. The strongest observed associations were with benign prostatic hyperplasia (OR 2.7), functional digestive disorders (OR 2.6), dyspepsia (OR 2.1), anxiety disorders (OR 2.0), other soft tissue disorders (OR 2.0), esophageal reflux (OR 1.8) and mood disorders (OR 1.8).

CONCLUSIONS

Prostatitis is a commonly diagnosed condition in the community setting, affecting approximately 1/22 men. The diagnosis is associated with multiple other unexplained physical symptoms and certain psychiatric conditions. Studies to explore possible biological explanations for these associations are needed.

Effect of comestibles on symptoms of interstitial cystitis

PURPOSE

Anecdotal evidence suggests that patients with painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis report symptom exacerbation after consuming particular foods, beverages and/or supplements. We determined the prevalence of the effect of comestibles on painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis symptoms and identified particular comestible items more likely to affect such symptoms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A validated questionnaire designed to detect whether food, beverages and/or supplements have an effect on bladder symptoms was administered to 104 patients meeting National Institute for Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases criteria for interstitial cystitis. In addition to answering general questions about the effect of comestibles on painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis symptoms, subjects were asked to indicate whether each of 175 individual items worsened, improved or had no effect on symptoms. Each response was numerically scored on a scale of -2 to 2 and mean values were generated for each comestible item.

RESULTS

Of the surveyed patients with painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis 90.2% indicated that the consumption of certain foods or beverages caused symptom exacerbation. There was no correlation between allergies and the effect of comestibles on symptoms. Patients who reported that specific foods worsened symptoms tended to have higher O'Leary-Sant interstitial cystitis symptom index and problem index, and/or pelvic pain and urgency/frequency patient symptom scale scores. A total of 35 comestible items had a mean score of lower than -1.0, including caffeinated, carbonated and alcoholic beverages, certain fruits and juices, artificial sweeteners and spicy foods.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a large cohort of patients with painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis in whom symptoms are exacerbated by the ingestion of specific comestibles. The most frequently reported and most bothersome comestibles were coffee, tea, soda, alcoholic beverages, citrus fruits and juices, artificial sweeteners and hot pepper.