On elaboration and alcohol

Improving intoxicated witness recall with the Enhanced Cognitive Interview

RATIONALE

Witnesses and victims typically provide the central leads in police investigations, yet statistics from past research indicates in many instances these individuals are intoxicated.

OBJECTIVES

To date, however, no research has looked at how best to interview such witnesses to maximise the amount of accurate information they recall.

METHODS

In the present research, whilst on a night out, participants watched a videoed theft whilst either sober or moderately (MBAC = 0.05%) or severely (MBAC = 0.14%) intoxicated. A week later, in a different location, participants were interviewed using either the Enhanced Cognitive (ECI) or Structured Interview.

RESULTS

The ECI was found to improve the recall accuracy and completeness of witness accounts across all three drinking conditions. However, no significant interaction was indicated between alcohol and interview condition.

CONCLUSIONS

The study findings are discussed in terms of their real-world value in aiding police officers to elicit as complete and as accurate an account as possible from intoxicated witnesses.

Attention to advertising and memory for brands under alcohol intoxication

In an attempt to discover new possibilities for advertising in uncluttered environments marketers have recently begun using ambient advertising in, for instance, bars and pubs. However, advertising in such licensed premises have to deal with the fact that many consumers are under the influence of alcohol while viewing the ad. This paper examines the effect of alcohol intoxication on attention to and memory for advertisements in two experiments. Study 1 used a forced exposure manipulation and revealed increased attention to logos under alcohol intoxication consistent with the psychopharmacological prediction that alcohol intoxication narrows attention to the more salient features in the visual environment. Study 2 used a voluntary exposure manipulation in which ads were embedded in a magazine. The experiment revealed that alcohol intoxication reduces voluntary attention to ads and leads to a significant reduction in memory for the viewed ads. In popular terms consuming one or two beers reduces brand recall from 40 to 36% while being heavily intoxicated further reduces brand recall to 17%.

Acute alcohol effects on repetition priming and word recognition memory with equivalent memory cues

Acute alcohol intoxication effects on memory were examined using a recollection-based word recognition memory task and a repetition priming task of memory for the same information without explicit reference to the study context. Memory cues were equivalent across tasks; encoding was manipulated by varying the frequency of occurrence (FOC) of words in the study lists. Twenty-two female and male social drinkers (age 21-24 years) completed equivalent versions of the memory tasks in two counterbalanced sessions (alcohol challenge, no-alcohol). Alcohol and the FOC manipulation affected recollection-based memory processing, but not repetition priming. Results supported alcohol's dissociative effects on memory systems.

Self-corrected elaboration effects on incidental memory

Subjects performed an orienting task involving 3 conditions followed by an unexpected free recall test. The conditions were designed to force 3 types of corrected elaborations: Generated Correction, Chosen Correction, and No Correction. In the Generated Correction condition the subjects were presented with a target word (e.g., Baby) and a bizarre sentence frame (e.g., "____drinks beer.") and asked to correct the target to a congruous word (e.g., Uncle) to make a common sentence. In the Chosen Correction condition, the subjects were presented with a target and its bizarre sentence frame and asked to choose one of the alternative congruous words (e.g., Uncle, Aunt) to make a common sentence. In the No Correction condition, the subjects were presented with a target and its bizarre sentence frame and asked to rate the congruity of each target to its sentence frame. Generated Correction led to a better performance than Chosen Correction and No Correction, but a difference between the last two correction types was not found. These results were interpreted as showing that, by generating correct information, self-corrected elaboration led to facilitation of incidental memory.

Changes across Age Groups in Self-Choice Elaboration Effects on Incidental Memory

The present study investigated age differences in the effects of a self-choice elaboration and an experimenter-provided elaboration on incidental memory. Adults, sixth grade, and second grade subjects chose which of two sentence frames the target fit better in a self-choice elaboration condition. They then judged whether each target made sense in its sentence frame in the experimenter-provided elaboration, then did free recall tests. Only adults recalled better the targets with an image sentence with self-choice elaboration, rather than experimenter-provided elaboration. However, self-choice elaboration was far superior for the recall of targets with nonimage sentences only for second graders. Thus, the effects of self-choice elaboration were determined both by age and by type of sentence frame.

Alcohol's dissociation of implicit and explicit memory processes: implications of a parallel distributed processing model of semantic priming

Alcohol's dissociation of implicit (unintentional) and explicit (intentional) memory processes in social drinkers was examined. It was hypothesized that an alcohol challenge would lower the percentage of words recalled and result in more retroactive interference in explicit recall tasks but would not lengthen reaction time in an implicit semantic priming task involving highly semantically similar words. Men and women completed all memory tasks in each of 2 counterbalanced sessions (alcohol challenge vs. no-alcohol) separated by 1 week. Alcohol significantly degraded processing in both explicit memory tasks, yet implicit semantic priming remained intact. A parallel distributed processing model that simulates semantic memory is presented. When this system is strongly activated, it does not appear to be altered during moderate alcohol intoxication.

Effects of types of elaboration on children's memories of a story: interaction with academic performance

Two experiments compared the effectiveness of three types of elaboration on incidental and intentional memory for a story: self-generated, self-choice, and experimenter-provided elaboration. In Exp. 1, using the incidental memory paradigm, second graders listened to a fantastic story and then, in the self-generated condition, answered a "why" question about a particular topic in the story. In the self-choice condition, they chose one of the alternative answers to the question and in the experimenter-provided condition, judged the appropriateness of each of two provided answers. This was followed by free-recall and cued-recall tests. Subjects were categorized into two groups, good and poor academic achievers in terms of academic scores in four subject matter areas. For good academic achievers, self-choice elaboration led to a better cued recall than the other two elaboration types. The cued-recall performance of poor achievers was not different with the three conditions. In Exp. 2, using the intentional memory paradigm, the subjects intended to learn a different story and then performed the same procedure as Exp. 1. For poor achievers, self-choice elaboration led to a worse free recall than the other elaboration types, but the free recall of good achievers was not significantly different for the three types of elaboration. The results were interpreted as showing that the effects of self-choice elaboration on incidental and intentional memory were correlated with subjects' academic performance.

Changes across age groups in self-choice elaboration and incidental memory

This study investigated differences in the self-choice elaboration and an experimenter-provided elaboration on incidental memory of 7- to 12-yr.-olds. In a self-choice elaboration condition 34 second and 25 sixth graders were asked to choose one of the two sentence frames into which each target could fit more congruously, whereas in an experimenter-provided elaboration they were asked to judge the congruity of each target to each frame. In free recall, sixth graders recalled targets in bizarre sentence frames better than second graders for self-choice elaboration condition. An age difference was not found for the experimenter-provided elaboration. In cued recall self-choice elaboration led to better performance of sixth graders for recalling targets than an experimenter-provided elaboration in both bizarre and common sentence frames. However, the different types of elaboration did not alter the recall of second graders. These results were interpreted as showing that the effectiveness of a self-choice elaboration depends on the subjects' age and the type of sentence.

Age-independent and dose-response effects of ethanol on spatial memory in rats

Results of previous studies have shown that ethanol impairs the acquisition of spatial memory in adolescent rats at doses below those required to impair the acquisition in adults. However, the previous work did not identify doses of ethanol that failed to impair acquisition in adolescents or that impaired acquisition in both adolescent and adult animals. This was our aim in the present study. Male, Long-Evans hooded rats (adolescent and adult) were treated intraperitoneally with 0.0, 0.5, or 2.5 g/kg of ethanol 30 min before daily training on a spatial or nonspatial version of the Morris water maze task. Twenty-four hours after training on the spatial task the animals were given a 1-min probe trial. The low dose of ethanol (0.5 g/kg) failed to impair the performance of animals from either age group on any tasks. It did, however, enhance the initial rate of acquisition on the spatial task. The 2.5-g/kg dose eliminated acquisition of spatial learning in animals of both ages and significantly attenuated performance on a nonspatial task in both age groups. However, the treatment effect in the nonspatial task was eliminated with controlling for baseline performance. These results establish a low dose of ethanol (0.5 g/kg) that does not impair acquisition of spatial memory in adolescent or adult rats. Moreover, the study findings show that 2.5 g/kg of ethanol markedly impairs acquisition of spatial memory in both adolescent and adult animals.

The self-choice elaboration effects on incidental memory of Japanese historical facts

The subjects performed an orienting task involving 3 conditions, followed by unexpected tests which included free recall, name-matching and name-selec tion. Conditions were designed to force self-generated elaboration, self-choice elaboration, and experimenter-provided elaboration. In the self-generated elaboration condition, subjects were presented target sentences, e.g., Nobunaga ODA burned down ENRYAKUJI Temple, and asked to answer an elaborative interrogation, e.g., Why did Nobunaga ODA burn down ENRYAKUJI Temple? about each sentence. In the self-choice elaboration condition, subjects selected one of the alternative answers to an elaborative interrogation about each sentence. In the experimenter provided elaboration condition, subjects were presented an answer which they rated for congruity as the correct answer to the elaborative interrogation. In the free recall test, self generated elaboration led to better performance than the other two conditions for which no difference was observed. However, in the name-matching and name-selection tests, scores were better for self choice elaboration and self-generated elaboration than for experimenter-provided elaboration. These results were interpreted as demonstrating that self choice elaboration, in addition to self-generated elaboration, led to effective encoding in memory.

Age and dose-dependent effects of ethanol on the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation

Hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) is strongly associated with the acquisition of spatial memory and is attenuated by ethanol. Recent studies have shown that the inhibitory potency of ethanol against n-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated synaptic activity is enhanced in hippocampal slices taken from juvenile rats compared to those taken from adults. In addition, ethanol has been reported to impair spatial memory acquisition at lower doses in adolescent rats compared to adults. We therefore hypothesized that the suppression of hippocampal LTP by ethanol would be more potent in hippocampal slices taken from adolescent rats compared to those taken from adults. The potency of ethanol against NMDA receptor-mediated LTP was assessed in area CA1 of hippocampal slices taken from adolescent (30 days old) and adult (90 days old) rats. In slices from adolescent rats, theta-burst stimulus trains reliably induced robust LTP in the absence of ethanol, but when the stimulus trains were presented in the presence of either 10 mM or 30 mM ethanol, LTP induction was significantly suppressed relative to controls. In contrast, there was no effect of these ethanol concentrations on the induction of LTP in hippocampal slices from adult rats. These observations indicate that ethanol suppresses LTP in the adolescent hippocampus at concentrations that do not affect than it suppresses in the adult slices, suggesting a much greater sensitivity to ethanol in adolescence.

Impairment of semantic and figural memory by acute ethanol: age-dependent effects

Alcohol drinking is prevalent among young adults in the U.S. Moreover, heavy drinking is acknowledged by a substantial percentage of young adults in both college and military subpopulations, despite the known cognitive demands associated with these endeavors and the cognitive impairments associated with alcohol usage. We assessed the acute effects of ethanol (0.6 g/kg) on the acquisition of both semantic and figural memory in a sample of young adults from 21 to 29 years of age using a repeated-measures, placebo-controlled experimental design. Ethanol significantly impaired memory acquisition in both domains. In addition, the effect of ethanol on three of the four memory measures assessed was dependent on the age of the subjects. Subjects in a young subgroup (21 to 24 years of age) were significantly more impaired in memory measures than those in the subgroup that was 25 to 29 years of age. These results indicate a divergence of the potency of ethanol against memory acquisition across a narrow age range in early adulthood. Whereas these data are preliminary, and should be generalized cautiously, they are also consistent with a growing literature using animal models that indicates that acute ethanol is a more potent antagonist of memory and memory-related hippocampal activity in adolescent animals compared with adults.

Alcohol pharmacodynamics in young-elderly adults contrasted with young and middle-aged subjects

Effects of aging on ethyl alcohol (EtOH) pharmacodynamics were examined over progressive dosing schedules (0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 g/kg) in groups of young (25.0 +/- 2.9 years), middle-aged (41.1 +/- 6.6 years), and young-elderly adults (60.9 +/- 2.6 years) using three computerized cognitive-neuromotor tasks: digit-symbol substitution (DSS), keypad reaction time (KRT), and subcritical tracking (SCT). Hysteresis curves of performance impairment (adjusted for pre-drug baseline) as a function of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) were examined for time-course effects, and regression analyses were performed to assess the contribution of age beyond that accounted for by BAC. Results reflected differences in the patterning but not magnitude of impairment for elderly subjects, with earlier decrements and more rapid acute tolerance observed for DSS, in conjunction with less pharmacodynamic sensitivity for SCT. Regression analyses furthermore indicated that age and impairment were negatively related, arguing against synergistic intoxication effects as a function of aging. Analyses specifically comparing performance at baseline versus legally intoxicating BACs (> 1.0 mg/ml) likewise reflected a lack of interactive effects involving the elderly. Elderly subjects nevertheless exhibited significantly lower baseline performance for DSS and KRT than young subjects and achieved higher BACs with equivalent doses. These latter findings support the exercise of caution by elderly individuals consuming EtOH prior to engaging in neuromotor pursuits such as driving.

Posttrial treatment with ethanol enhances recall of prose narratives

A small number of studies have examined the effects of postlearning alcohol intoxication on memory for various materials. In contrast to most research examining the effects of alcohol on human memory, these studies demonstrated a facilitation of memory for information learned prior to intoxication. The present study was designed to examine the effects of alcohol on memory for two different kinds of materials. Standard word lists and narrative prose passages were employed to obtain a more detailed picture of the effects of posttrial intoxication with alcohol on memory. Intoxication with alcohol did not affect subject's ability to recall simple word lists. However, recall of prose passages was facilitated to a statistically significant degree. Results are discussed within the context of a current theory of retrograde facilitation of memory via various drugs/substances.

Gender differences in retrieval from long-term memory following acute intoxication with ethanol

The present study investigated the effects of ethanol on retrieval from long-term memory by using a set of cognitive decision tasks. Male and female subjects were administered either 0.0 or 1.0 milliliter of ethanol per kilogram of body weight, and then asked to make physical, lexical, and semantic decisions about pairs of words. In general, intoxicated subjects responded significantly slower than sober subjects on all decision types. In addition, female subjects demonstrated greater performance deficits than males when intoxicated. The results suggested that the reduction in speed was not due to a simple slowing of motor responses. Rather the ethanol induced memory deficits may result from the slowing of cognitive operations that impair the efficiency of working memory. Several reasons were proposed for the observed difference in reaction to intoxication between male and female subjects, including neuroendocrine processes and cognitive differences.

Priming and cued recall in elderly, alcohol intoxicated and sleep deprived subjects: a case of functionally similar memory deficits

Young, old, alcohol intoxicated, and sleep deprived subjects studied weakly and strongly related word pairs, and were tested in lexical decision priming and cued recall. Results showed memory deficits for old, alcohol intoxicated, and sleep deprived subjects in cued recall of weakly related pairs. In contrast, there were no differences between these three groups and a control group of young subjects in cued recall of strongly related pairs, and there were no differences between groups in priming. This pattern of results is interpreted to support (a) a hypothesis of functional similarities between the memory deficits associated with adult ageing, alcohol intoxication, and sleep deprivation; (b) the notion that memory deficits in these subjects are more likely to occur in tasks which require effortful rather than automatic processes; and (c) the view that the memory deficits observed are due to inefficiencies at both encoding and retrieval.

The effects of alcohol on prose memory

The present study examined the effects of acute alcoholic intoxication on prose memory. Intoxicated and sober subjects listened to six narrative passages at different presentation rates. Immediately after listening to a tape-recorded version of each story, subjects orally recalled it. The results demonstrated that sober subjects recalled more than intoxicated subjects, but subjects from both groups favored the main ideas in their recalls. However, at the fastest presentation rate, intoxicated subjects showed some diminished sensitivity to the semantic structure of prose. It was suggested that alcohol induced deficits in prose memory may result from a general slowing in the rate with which text is encoded into working memory.