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Palkumbura PGAS, Mahakapuge TAN, Wijesundera RRMKK, Wijewardana V, Kangethe RT, Rajapakse RPVJ. Mucosal Immunity of Major Gastrointestinal Nematode Infections in Small Ruminants Can Be Harnessed to Develop New Prevention Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1409. [PMID: 38338687 PMCID: PMC10855138 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal parasitic nematode (GIN) infections are the cause of severe losses to farmers in countries where small ruminants such as sheep and goat are the mainstay of livestock holdings. There is a need to develop effective and easy-to-administer anti-parasite vaccines in areas where anthelmintic resistance is rapidly rising due to the inefficient use of drugs currently available. In this review, we describe the most prevalent and economically significant group of GIN infections that infect small ruminants and the immune responses that occur in the host during infection with an emphasis on mucosal immunity. Furthermore, we outline the different prevention strategies that exist with a focus on whole and purified native parasite antigens as vaccine candidates and their possible oral-nasal administration as a part of an integrated parasite control toolbox in areas where drug resistance is on the rise.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. G. Ashani S. Palkumbura
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Kandy 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - Thilini A. N. Mahakapuge
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Kandy 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - R. R. M. K. Kavindra Wijesundera
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Kandy 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - Viskam Wijewardana
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Richard Thiga Kangethe
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - R. P. V. Jayanthe Rajapakse
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Kandy 20400, Sri Lanka
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Abstract
Sheep are capable of developing protective immunity to Haemonchus contortus through repeated exposure to this parasite, although this immune protection is the result of a complex interaction among age, gender, physiological status, pregnancy, lactation, nutrition and innate and adaptive immunity in the host animal. There are multiple effectors of the protective immune response, which differ depending on the developmental stage of the parasite being targeted, and our understanding of the effector mechanisms has developed considerably in the 2000s. The rational design of vaccines based on 'natural' or 'exposed' antigens depends on an understanding of this exposure-induced immunity. However, the most effective current vaccines rely on protection via the induction of high circulating antibody levels to 'hidden' gut antigens of H. contortus. The success of this latter strategy has resulted in the launch of a vaccine, which is based on extracts of the parasite's gut, to aid in the control of Haemonchus in Australia. The development of recombinant subunit vaccines based on the components of the successful native vaccine has not yet been achieved and most of the recent successes with recombinant subunit vaccines have focussed on antigens unrelated to the gut antigens. The future integration of an understanding of the immunobiology of this parasite with advances in antigen identification, expression (or synthesis) and presentation is likely to be pivotal to the further development of these recombinant subunit vaccines. Recent progress in each of the components underpinning this integrated approach is summarized in this review.
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Hohenhaus MA, Josey MJ, Dobson C, Outteridge PM. The eosinophil leucocyte, a phenotypic marker of resistance to nematode parasites, is associated with calm behaviour in sheep. Immunol Cell Biol 1998; 76:153-8. [PMID: 9619485 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.1998.00727.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis that behaviour in sheep is influenced by resistance to infections with Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Haemonchus contortus was explored. Sheep were assessed phenotypically as resistant and susceptible in four ways and thereafter, the effect of resistance on several behavioural traits was measured in an arena test. The behavioural parameters recorded for each sheep were: approach/avoidance distance; travel; number of moves; and spread. Four phenotypic groups of sheep were set up each with two subgroups: ovine lymphocyte antigen (OLA) type (subgroups SY1a type vs other types); blood eosinophil leucocyte counts (high vs low); T. colubriformis and H. contortus serum antibodies (high vs low titres) and faecal egg count (FEC) (high vs low). Only the behavioural comparison between sheep with high versus low eosinophil leucocyte count showed consistent differences that were statistically significant, although other comparisons favoured associations between OLA type SY1a, low FEC and reduced approach/avoidance distance and/or locomotor behaviour. The eosinophil leucocyte association was established on two non-overlapping test populations of sheep, with mean eosinophil leucocyte counts of 3.19 x 10(5)/mL blood for high and 0.83 x 10(5)/mL blood for low subgroups; results were reproduced on five separate occasions over 6 weeks to detect differences as approach/avoidance distance (P < 0.01), travel (P < 0.01), number of moves (P < 0.01), and spread (P < 0.05). High eosinophilia correlated with low FEC for the infected sheep, which identified sheep that were resistant to parasites. We concluded, therefore, that the resistant sheep were more at ease with the environment of the test than were the sheep with low eosinophil leucocyte counts. The strong association between high eosinophil leucocyte counts and behaviour is consistent with other reports which suggest that retention of normal levels of circulating eosinophil leucocytes is associated with resistance to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Hohenhaus
- Department of Animal Production, University of Queensland, Gatton College, Australia
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Vercruysse J, Claerebout E. Immunity development against Ostertagia ostertagi and other gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle. Vet Parasitol 1997; 72:309-16; discussion 316-26. [PMID: 9460204 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4017(97)00103-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The immunological response to gastrointestinal nematodes is complex and it will take time and financial support to dissect the different components of protective immunity in ruminants. The present review briefly summarises different aspects and manifestations of protective immunity in cattle against gastrointestinal nematodes, especially Ostertagia ostertagi, and the factors that may interact with the development of this immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Vercruysse
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Parasitology, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Haig DM, Stevenson LM, Thomson J, Percival A, Smith WD. Haemopoietic cell responses in the blood and bone marrow of sheep infected with the abomasal nematode Telodorsagia circumcincta. J Comp Pathol 1995; 112:151-64. [PMID: 7769146 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9975(05)80058-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The generation of bone marrow and blood haemopoietic progenitor colony-forming cells (CFCs) in sheep given primary or challenge infections with the nematode parasite Telodorsagia circumcincta is described. Ten days after a primary infection, the frequency of early multipotential-CFCs, eosinophil-CFCs, macrophage-CFCs and mast cell or basophil-CFCs was greater than in controls. These frequencies then declined to pre-infection levels by day 21. Blood CFCs (mainly macrophage-CFCs and eosinophil-CFCs) also increased after infection, indicating a migration of CFCs, presumably to the site of infection. Ten days after challenge infection there was less marked myelopoiesis than in the primary infection on day 10, though both eosinophil-CFCs and mast cell or basophil-CFCs were significantly above control values. Blood CFC output (mainly macrophage-CFCs and eosinophil-CFCs) reached a peak 2-6 days after challenge, evidence of rapid recruitment to the site of infection. Telodorsagia circumcincta infection is therefore associated with an increase in myelopoiesis, particularly for the cell types characteristic of the local inflammatory response to abomasal nematodes. There was no correlation between any of the haemopoietic cell responses measured and worm burdens in individual animals after either primary or challenge infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Haig
- Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK
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Emery DL, McClure SJ, Wagland BM. Production of vaccines against gastrointestinal nematodes of livestock. Immunol Cell Biol 1993; 71 ( Pt 5):463-72. [PMID: 8270275 DOI: 10.1038/icb.1993.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Three international collaborations involving Australian research scientists are currently developing vaccines against Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus and Ostertagia parasites using recombinant DNA technology. The variety of protective antigens identified can be classified as 'conventional' (stimulate naturally acquired immunity) or 'novel'/'convert'/'concealed' (protective once immunity is induced by vaccination). To date, the most gratifying progress has resulted in 60-90% protection against Haemonchus and other blood-sucking parasites (e.g. ticks) using novel antigens, where high titres of serum antibody ingested by feeding worms leads to their demise. A great deal of research effort is unravelling the complexity of naturally acquired immunity so that conventional antigens, which may be the principal means of removing 'mucosal-browsing' parasites, may be formulated and delivered to achieve optimal efficacy. This work reveals that to remove early stages of parasites before they take up residence, deliberate induction of hypersensitivity responses akin to asthma, may be a desirable goal for vaccines and that the two models have much in common.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Emery
- CSIRO Division of Animal Health, McMaster Laboratory, Glebe, New South Wales, Australia
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Abstract
Substantial protection against Haemonchus contortus was induced in lambs by hyperimmunising them with an integral membrane extract of intestines dissected from adult worms. The procedure was effective in young growing animals but did not afford any cross protection against either Ostertagia circumcincta or Nematodirus battus. A serum transfer experiment suggested that the effector mechanism was serum antibody which bound to the brush border membrane of the parasites intestinal cells. Sheep which had acquired immunity to H contortus by previous exposure to a trickle infection did not recognise the gut membrane proteins, which suggested that these are normally hidden from the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- W D Smith
- Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh
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Emery DL, Wagland BM. Vaccines against gastrointestinal nematode parasites of ruminants. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991; 7:347-9. [PMID: 15463413 DOI: 10.1016/0169-4758(91)90217-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A consequence of intensive livestock production is an increase in the incidence and impact of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites. Farmers have sought to redress this shift in the natural host-parasite relationship by chemotherapy. However, with the widespread development of resistance to anthelmintics and the current impetus for sustainable agricultural practices, alternatives such as vaccines are being sought to maintain animal productivity. In this article, David Emery and Barry Wagland discuss recent advances in immunity to nematode infections of ruminants and the development of vaccines made possible by the dogged persistence and ingenuity of cadres of parasitologists who have done more than 'go through the motions'.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Emery
- CSIRO, Division of Animal Health, McMaster Laboratory, Private Bag No. I, Glebe, NSW 2037, Australia
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Kassai T, Fésüs L, Hendrikx WM, Takáts C, Fok E, Redl P, Takács E, Nilsson PR, van Leeuwen MA, Jansen J. Is there a relationship between haemoglobin genotype and the innate resistance to experimental Haemonchus contortus infection in Merino lambs? Vet Parasitol 1990; 37:61-77. [PMID: 2238431 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4017(90)90026-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Responses to a single or repeated infection with 7000 infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus were studied in an experiment using a total of 106 3-month-old lambs with AA, AB or BB haemoglobin (Hb) genotypes. Results were assessed by faecal egg counts, adult worm counts, haematocrit values, haemoglobin concentrations, total serum protein and serum antibody IgG1 and IgA ELISA titres. None of these parameters showed a strong relationship to the Hb type. The prevalence of low responder (greater than 500 worms) and of high responder (less than 50 worms) animals in groups AA, AB and BB Hb types was 3.8 and 34.6, 20.6 and 35.2, 28.1 and 43.7%, respectively, suggesting that the responsiveness to nematode infection is under the control of gene(s) not closely linked with those determining the Hb genotype. Worm counts of a primary infection are more subject to variation than those of a secondary infection. There is a strong relationship between adult worm counts and faecal egg counts taken close to the time of slaughter. In living animals low and high responder discrimination can be based on individual faecal egg counts around 50 days after a secondary infection. Haematocrit values proved to be of little value in the low and high responder selection. In this regard neither Hb concentration nor total serum protein values are of practical significance. In 3-month-old lambs primary infection induced partial immunity which could prevent the establishment of a part of the secondary infection, irrespective of the presence or absence of the primary worm population. The development of immunity was not associated with an increase of serum IgG1 and IgA antibody levels. Specific antibody production was not influenced by Hb types. Mean antibody levels of low responder lambs showed no difference from those of high responders. Thus, serum IgG1 and IgA levels are of no predictive value in identifying lambs which are genetically resistant to Haemonchus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kassai
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Science, Budapest, Hungary
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Haig DM, Windon R, Blackie W, Brown D, Smith WD. Parasite-specific T cell responses of sheep following live infection with the gastric nematode Haemonchus contortus. Parasite Immunol 1989; 11:463-77. [PMID: 2479901 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.1989.tb00682.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Helper T cell lines recognizing antigen in the context of MHC Class II molecules were generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of sheep undergoing a primary or secondary infection with the nematode parasite Haemonchus contortus. The lines were used to identify 15-18, 25-29, 70-80 and greater than 100 kD immunodominant parasite larval antigens fractionated by SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions. Non-specific mitogenic activity in the antigen fractions was not detected. During primary infection PBMC did not respond to soluble antigens or those fractionated on SDS-PAGE, whereas T cell lines generated from these PBMC responded well. T cell lines and PBMC derived after a secondary infection responded similarly to fractionated larval antigen. This indicated that (a) the T cell lines had retained their antigen specificities (as represented by autologous PBMC reactivity) in spite of in-vitro cycles of restimulation with whole larval soluble antigen and subsequent expansion in recombinant human IL-2, and (b) proliferation of the antigen-specific PBMC was predominantly due to helper T cells. Variations between individual sheep in response to fractionated larval antigens was also observed. The pattern of helper T cell reactivity to SDS-PAGE larval antigens correlated poorly with B cell reactivity in the same animals by serum antibody Western blot analysis. These results demonstrate that helper T cell epitopes can be mapped in complex parasite antigen preparations in sheep and that this approach will be useful in the identification of parasite protective antigens in helminthiasis where the cellular or humoral nature of protection is not clearly defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Haig
- Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK
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Gorrell MD, Miller HR, Brandon MR. Lymphocyte phenotypes in the abomasal mucosa of sheep infected with Haemonchus contortus. Parasite Immunol 1988; 10:661-74. [PMID: 3217127 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.1988.tb00252.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Lymphocyte subpopulations in the abomasal mucosa of worm-free and parasitized sheep were assessed in situ. A preponderance of T-lymphocytes, with approximately equal numbers of cells expressing CD5, CD4 and CD8 antigens, was found. Most of the lymphocytes expressing CD8 lacked CD5. Using a panel of 15 monoclonal antibodies to ovine leucocyte antigens, abomasal lymphoid follicles in the mucosa were shown to resemble lymph node follicles phenotypically. Abomasal epithelial cells contained major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigen. Infection or hyperimmunization of pasture-reared sheep with the gastric nematode Haemonchus contortus increased the numbers of mucosal mast cells and eosinophils but did not alter the phenotypic composition or number of mucosal lymphocytes or the pattern of expression of MHC class II antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Gorrell
- Department of Veterinary Preclinical Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Neilson JT, Van de Walle MJ. Partial protection of lambs against Haemonchus contortus by vaccination with a fractionated preparation of the parasite. Vet Parasitol 1987; 23:211-21. [PMID: 3564350 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4017(87)90007-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Florida Native lambs, less than 6 months of age, were successfully vaccinated against Haemonchus contortus with a high mol. wt fraction (greater than 30,000 daltons) derived from a somatic extract of H. contortus larvae (SEL) and excretions and secretions (ES) of larvae isolated during in vitro development from the infective 3rd to 4th stage. A 59% reduction in adult worm numbers was obtained in vaccinates compared to naive lambs following challenge. The protection in vaccinated lambs was similar to that seen in lambs exposed to a primary infection of H. contortus larvae which had been cleared with anthelmintic prior to the challenge infection. The unfractionated SEL/ES preparation and a low mol. wt fraction gave no significant protection against challenge infection.
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SMITH W, JACKSON F, JACKSON E, GRAHAM R, WILLIAMS J, WILLADSEN S, FEHILLY C. Transfer of immunity to Ostertagia circumcincta and IgA memory between identical sheep by lymphocytes collected from gastric lymph. Res Vet Sci 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)30620-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Miller HR. The protective mucosal response against gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants and laboratory animals. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1984; 6:167-259. [PMID: 6377673 DOI: 10.1016/0165-2427(84)90051-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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