Colonoscopic diagnosis and treatment of lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Management of bleeding in palliative care patients in the general internal medicine ward: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Palliative care patients, those suffering from at least one chronic lifelong medical condition and hospice care patients, those with a life expectancy less than 6 months, are regularly hospitalised in general internal medicine wards. By means of a clinical case, this review aims to equip the internist with an approach to bleeding in this population. Firstly, practical advice on platelet transfusions will be provided. Secondly, the management of bleeding in site-specific situations will be addressed (from the ENT/pulmonary sphere, gastrointestinal - urogenital tract and cutaneous ulcers). Finally, an algorithm pertaining to the management of catastrophic bleeding is proposed.

METHODS

Electronic databases, including EMBASE, Pubmed, Google Scholar and the Cochrane Library were studied as primary resources, in association with local guidelines, to identify papers exploring platelet transfusions and alternative management of site-specific bleeding in palliative care patients.

RESULTS

Haemorrhagic complications are frequent in palliative care patients in the internal medicine ward. Current guidelines propose a therapeutic-only platelet transfusion policy. Nonetheless, prophylactic and/or therapeutic transfusion remains a physician-dependent decision. Site-specific therapeutic options are based on expert opinion and case reports. While invasive measures may be pertinent in certain situations, their application must be compatible with patient goals. Catastrophic bleeding requires caregivers' comforting presence; pharmacological management is secondary.

CONCLUSION

Literature is lacking regarding management of bleeding in the palliative care population hospitalised in an acute medical setting. Recommendations are of limited quality, the majority based on case reports or expert opinion. Further studies, exploring for example the impact on patient quality of life, are desirable to improve the management of this frequently encountered complication.

CT-Angiography for the Detection of a Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding Source

The evaluation of lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) often involves the collaborative efforts of the gastroenterologist, radiologist, and surgeon. Efforts to localize the acute LGIB have traditionally involved colonoscopy, technetium-labeled red blood cell (RBC) scintigraphy, angiography, or a combination of these modalities. The sensitivity of each method of diagnosis is limited, with the most common cause of a negative study the spontaneous cessation of hemorrhage. Other technical factors include vasospasm, lack of adequate contrast volume or exposure time, a venous bleeding source, and a large surface bleeding area. We report the use of multidetector computed tomography (MDCT), or CT-angiography (CT-A), in the initial evaluation of LGIB, and speculate on the incorporation of this technique into a diagnostic algorithm to treat LGIB. MDCT may offer a very sensitive means to evaluate the source of acute LGIB, while avoiding some of the morbidity and intense resource use of contrast angiography, and may provide unique morphologic information regarding the type of pathology. Screening with the more rapid and available MDCT, followed by either directed therapeutic angiography or surgical management, may represent a reasonable algorithm for the early evaluation and management of acute LGIB in which an active bleeding source is strongly suspected.

Management of bleeding in patients with advanced cancer

Bleeding occurs in up to 10% of patients with advanced cancer. It can present in many different ways. This article provides a qualitative review of treatment options available to manage visible bleeding. Local modalities, such as hemostatic agents and dressings, radiotherapy, endoscopic ligation and coagulation, and transcutaneous arterial embolization, are reviewed in the context of advanced cancer, as are systemic treatments such as vitamin K, vasopressin/desmopressin, octreotide/somatostatin, antifibrinolytic agents (tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid), and blood products. Considerations at the end of life are described.

Prediction of outcome in acute lower-gastrointestinal haemorrhage based on an artificial neural network: internal and external validation of a predictive model

BACKGROUND

Models based on artificial neural networks (ANN) are useful in predicting outcome of various disorders. There is currently no useful predictive model for risk assessment in acute lower-gastrointestinal haemorrhage. We investigated whether ANN models using information available during triage could predict clinical outcome in patients with this disorder.

METHODS

ANN and multiple-logistic-regression (MLR) models were constructed from non-endoscopic data of patients admitted with acute lower-gastrointestinal haemorrhage. The performance of ANN in classifying patients into high-risk and low-risk groups was compared with that of another validated scoring system (BLEED), with the outcome variables recurrent bleeding, death, and therapeutic interventions for control of haemorrhage. The ANN models were trained with data from patients admitted to the primary institution during the first 12 months (n=120) and then internally validated with data from patients admitted to the same institution during the next 6 months (n=70). The ANN models were then externally validated and direct comparison made with MLR in patients admitted to an independent institution in another US state (n=142).

FINDINGS

Clinical features were similar for training and validation groups. The predictive accuracy of ANN was significantly better than that of BLEED (predictive accuracy in internal validation group for death 87% vs 21%; for recurrent bleeding 89% vs 41%; and for intervention 96% vs 46%) and similar to MLR. During external validation, ANN performed well in predicting death (97%), recurrent bleeding (93%), and need for intervention (94%), and it was superior to MLR (70%, 73%, and 70%, respectively).

INTERPRETATION

ANN can accurately predict the outcome for patients presenting with acute lower-gastrointestinal haemorrhage and may be generally useful for the risk stratification of these patients.

The clinical utility of nuclear medicine imaging for the detection of occult gastrointestinal haemorrhage

Acute gastrointestinal bleeding is often intermittent and the bleeding source may be difficult to locate, resulting in delay of potentially life-saving treatment. The aim of this study was to determine the clinical utility of 99mTc labelled red blood cell imaging and [99mTc]pertechnetate (Meckel's scan) imaging in a series of 137 patients admitted over a 5 year period to hospital for management of acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Of the 137 patients, 70 had positive 99mTc red blood cell studies. Eleven of 24 patients who had imaging performed beyond 3 h had positive scans that would otherwise have been missed. Only 47 patients had a definite final diagnosis at the time of hospital discharge, of which six were negative on 99mTc red blood cell imaging. The correct site of bleeding was localized in seven of 21 patients with foregut bleeding, and 15 of 20 patients with colonic bleeding. Endoscopy yielded a diagnosis in 13 of the 47 patients (28%). Eleven patients had Meckel's scans but all were negative. Angiography was diagnostic in one of 17 patients studied. 99mTc red blood cell imaging is a useful test in the management of acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Imaging beyond 3 h may further improve the bleeding detection rate. This test, however, may be an unreliable means of localization of bleeding, particularly in the foregut.

Technetium-labelled red blood cell scintigraphy: is it useful in acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding?

Radionuclide scintigraphy is commonly utilized as a screening examination before performing more invasive procedures in the work-up of patients with lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. We reviewed our institutional experience with technetium-labelled red blood cell scintigraphy (TRCS) in detecting and localising acute lower GI bleeding. The study group included 72 patients who had 80 red cells scans over a five year period. Thirty-eight scans were positive (47.5%), and 42 were negative (52.5%). Sites of lower GI bleeding were confirmed by endoscopy, arteriography, surgery and/or pathology in 22 of the 38 positive scans. There were four false-negative scans (9.5%). The overall sensitivity and specificity of TRCS in detecting lower GI bleeding was 84.6% (22/26) and 70.4% (38/54), respectively. The accuracy of localization of bleeding sites in the patients with confirmed positive scans was 72.7% (16/22). Thirty mesenteric arteriograms were performed on patients in this series. Eleven arteriograms were performed after negative TRCS; one was positive. Technetium-labelled red blood cell scintigraphy appears to be a useful screening examination for patients with lower GI bleeding who are hemodynamically stable. This may avoid the potential morbidity of arteriography in patients who are not actively bleeding.

Total colectomy versus limited colonic resection for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding

BACKGROUND

Acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding (ALGB) of the colon can be problematic to diagnose. The purpose of this study was to review our experience with ALGBs and to determine any differences between limited colon resection (LCR) and total/subtotal colon resection (TCR).

METHODS

A retrospective study located 77 patients with ALGB, who required 2 or more units of packed red blood cells prior to surgery, and who were taken to the operating room from 1987 to 1997.

RESULTS

Fifty LCRs and 27 TCRs were performed during this 10-year period. Recurrent bleeding was significantly more common in the LCR group than in the TCR group (18% versus 4%). Morbidity and mortality were not significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

Owing to the misconception of a higher morbidity with TCR, it has been considered a "last resort" instead of a more expeditious therapy with similar morbidities and mortalities. TCR should be considered more often in the management of these patients.

Accurate localization and surgical management of active lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage with technetium-labeled erythrocyte scintigraphy

OBJECTIVE

There is disagreement over the reliability of technetium Tc 99m (99mTc)-labeled erythrocyte scintigraphy in the localization of active lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. A previous study at The New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center that showed a superior sensitivity for localization of scintigraphy versus angiography in surgical patients led the authors to emphasize scintigraphy as the diagnostic test of first choice in the clinical diagnostic algorithm. The authors hypothesized that tagged erythrocyte scintigraphy can be used accurately as the primary diagnostic modality in localizing acute bleeding and guiding surgical intervention.

METHODS

The authors conducted a 5-year, retrospective analysis of 224 inpatients who underwent scintigraphic imaging for diagnosis and localization of active lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Using scintigraphy as the primary diagnostic test, with colonoscopy, upper endoscopy, and angiography as adjunctive studies, 99mTc-labeled erythrocyte scans were performed at the clinician's discretion and were reviewed again for study purposes by two nuclear radiologists who were blinded to clinical outcome. Adjunctive diagnostic tests also were ordered for clinical indications.

RESULTS

Using delayed periodic scintigraphic imaging, results of 115 scans (51.3%) demonstrated bleeding, with 96 scans (42.9%) localizing to a specific anatomic site. Patients with positive scans were five times more likely to require surgery (p < 0.005) than patients with negative scans, and surgical patients were twice as likely to localize by scintigraphy (p < 0.0001). Fifty patients (22.3%) required surgical intervention to control hemorrhage and had a bleeding site confirmed by both clinical and pathologic examinations. Forty-eight of those patients (96%) had a bleeding site determined preoperatively. For 37 patients with bleeding sites localized preoperatively by scintigraphy, 36 (97.3%) had correct localization based on surgical pathology. Only one patient required a subtotal colectomy solely because of nonlocalized bleeding. No patient bled postoperatively, and there was no mortality in either operated or nonoperated patients. The mean volume of transfused erythrocytes was similar in both scan-localized and nonlocalized surgical patients.

CONCLUSION

When performed correctly and interpreted conservatively, scintigraphy is a useful and safe means of guiding segmental resection, and should be the primary tool used in the diagnosis of patients with active lower gastrointestinal bleeding.

Therapeutic intervention for nonvariceal gastrointestinal hemorrhage

The choice of therapeutic endoscopic technique depends on the training and equipment available to the endoscopist. If the technique is properly performed, the results are similar using injection, thermal coagulation, or laser therapy. We recommended that pediatric endoscopists concentrate on one thermal and one injection technique, since individual bleeding lesions may be more amenable to one method than another based on their anatomic location or briskness of bleeding.

Diagnosis and treatment of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Diagnostic sigmoidoscopy and barium enema examinations (n = 214) or colonoscopy (n = 52) were performed for acute lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. The cause of bleeding was detected in 76% (203 of 266) of the primary examinations, and the cause remained unclear after subsequent examinations in 17% of the cases. Hemorrhoids were the cause of bleeding in 28% (56 of 203) of the cases, colonic diverticular disease in 19% (39 of 203), adenomatous polyps in 11% (23 of 203), and colorectal cancer in 10% (20 of 203). The sources of bleeding did not differ significantly by sex. An anorectal site of bleeding was most often detected in patients less than 50 years of age (p < 0.0001) and a left colonic site in those more than 70 years (p < 0.0001). Hemorrhoids significantly more often caused rectal bleeding among the youngest patients (p < 0.0001) and colonic diverticular disease among the oldest patients (p < 0.0001) and colonic diverticular disease among the oldest patients (p < 0.0001) than among the others. Of the 266 patients, 19% have been operated on for the bleeding lesion. The mortality related to lower GI bleeding was 4% (11 of 266). The mean age of the patients who died was higher than that of those who survived (p < 0.05).

Acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding ranges from occult blood loss to massive hemorrhage and shock. There are many causes but diverticulitis and angiodysplasia remain the most common sources of major hemorrhage. This article emphasizes the cause and evaluation of moderate to severe acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding.

[Diagnosis and management of lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Retrospective analysis of 233 cases]

In a retrospective analysis the diagnostic procedure was evaluated in patients with acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Bleeding sources were localized distally to the ligament of Treitz in 233 patients (1979-1988). Patients with hemorrhoidal bleeding were not included. Following exclusion of an upper gastrointestinal bleeding the diagnostic procedure was initiated with a recto-/colonoscopy. Lesions were detected in 77% of the treated patients (n = 136). Angiography localized the bleeding in 68%, in combination with colonoscopy the identification of the bleeding source reached 86.5% in the treated patients. Following scintigraphy the bleeding source was determined in 89.7% of these patients. The sensitivity of colonoscopy (0.93) was superior to the angiography (0.78) and to the scintigraphy (0.75). Apart from neoplasms and adenomas angiodysplasia and Meckel's diverticula were the most common sources of the bleeding in patients who underwent operation. In 61 patients endoscopic therapy was performed, however, 6.5% of these patients had to be operated on later because of persistent bleeding. All together 79 patients underwent operation, 31 for bleeding and 48 for other reasons. 12 patients died, 6 of them were operated on for the bleeding, the other for neoplasms.

Analysis of the colonoscopic findings in patients with rectal bleeding according to the pattern of their presenting symptoms

Patients presenting with rectal bleeding were prospectively categorized according to the pattern of their presentation into those with outlet bleeding (n = 115), suspicious bleeding (n = 59), hemorrhage (n = 27), and occult bleeding (n = 68). All patients underwent colonoscopy and this was complete in 94 percent. There were 34 patients with carcinoma and 69 with adenomas greater than 1 cm diameter. The percentage of neoplasms proximal to the splenic flexure was 1 percent in outlet bleeding, 24 percent with suspicious bleeding, 75 percent with hemorrhage, and 73 percent with occult bleeding. Barium enema was available in 78 patients and was falsely positive for neoplasms in 21 percent and falsely negative in 45 percent. Colonoscopy is the investigation of choice in patients with suspicious, occult, or severe rectal bleeding. Bleeding of a typical outlet pattern may be investigated by flexible sigmoidoscopy.