Conantokin-T selectively antagonizes N-methyl-D-aspartate-evoked responses in rat hippocampal slice

Novel conorfamides from Conus austini venom modulate both nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and acid-sensing ion channels

Conorfamides are a poorly studied family of cone snail venom peptides with broad biological activities, including inhibition of glutamate receptors, acid-sensing ion channels, and voltage-gated potassium channels. The aim of this study was to characterize the pharmacological activity of two novel linear conorfamides (conorfamide_As1a and conorfamide_As2a) and their non-amidated counterparts (conopeptide_As1b and conopeptide_As2b) that were isolated from the venom of the Mexican cone snail Conus austini. Although As1a, As2a, As1b and As2b were identified by activity-guided fractionation using a high-throughput fluorescence imaging plate reader (FLIPR) assay assessing α7 nAChR activity, sequence determination revealed activity associated with four linear peptides of the conorfamide rather than the anticipated α-conotoxin family. Pharmacological testing revealed that the amidated peptide variants altered desensitization of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) 1a and 3, and the native lysine to arginine mutation differentiating As1a and As1b from As2a and As2b introduced ASIC1a peak current potentiation. Surprisingly, these conorfamides also inhibited α7 and muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) at nanomolar concentrations. This is the first report of conorfamides with dual activity, with the nAChR activity being the most potent molecular target of any conorfamide discovered to date.

Synthetic conantokin peptides potently inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated currents of retinal ganglion cells

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), which are the sole output neurons of the retina, express N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), rendering these cells susceptible to glutamate excitotoxicity, with implications for loss of normal RGC excitatory responses in disorders such as glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy. Therefore, antagonists that inhibit NMDAR-mediated currents specifically by targeting the GluN2B component of the ion channel have the potential to serve as a basis for developing potential therapeutics. The roles of peptidic conantokins, which are potent brain neuronal NMDAR inhibitors, were studied. By using patch-clamp whole-cell analyses in dissociated RGCs and retinal whole-mount RGCs, we evaluated the effects of synthetic conantokin-G (conG) and conantokin-T (conT), which are small γ-carboxyglutamate-containing peptides, on NMDA-mediated excitatory responses in mouse RGCs. Both conG and conT inhibited the NMDA-mediated currents of dark-adapted dissociated and whole-mount RGCs in a dose-dependent, reversible, noncompetitive manner. Inhibition of NMDA-mediated steady-state currents by NMDAR nonsubunit-selective conT was approximately threefold greater than GluN2B-selective conG or ifenprodil, demonstrating its potential ability to inhibit both GluN2A- and GluN2B-containing ion channels in RGCs. Because the extent of inhibition of NMDA-evoked currents by conG and the pharmacologic GluN2B-selective inhibitor ifenprodil were similar (40-45%) to that of the GluN2A-selective antagonist NVP-AAM0077, we conclude that the levels of GluN2A and GluN2B subunits are similar in RGCs. These results provide a novel basis for developing effective neuroprotective agents to aid in the prevention of undesired glutamatergic excitotoxicity in neurodegenerative diseases of the retina and demonstrate functional assembly of NMDARs in RGCs.

Neuroprotection and peptide toxins

Neurodegeneration induced by excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is considered to be of particular relevance in several types of acute and chronic neurological impairments ranging from cerebral ischaemia to neuropathological conditions such as motor neuron disease, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. The hyperexcitation of glutamate receptors coupled with calcium overload can be prevented or modulated by using well-established competitive and non-competitive antagonists targeting ion/receptor channels. The exponentially increasing body of pharmacological evidence over the years indicates potential applications of peptide toxins, due to their exquisite subtype selectivity on ion channels and receptors, as lead structures for the development of drugs for the treatment of wide variety of neurological disorders. This review comprehensively highlights the overview of the diversity in the molecular as well as neurobiological mechanisms of different peptide toxins derived from venomous animals with particular reference to neuroprotection. In addition, the potential applications of peptide toxins in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders such as neuromuscular disorders, epilepsy, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, gliomas and ischaemic stroke and their future prospects in the diagnosis as well as in the therapy are addressed.

Conopeptides: From deadly venoms to novel therapeutics

Marine cone snails have developed many distinct venoms that contain biologically active peptides as part of an envenomation survival strategy for feeding and defense. These peptides, known as conopeptides, have been optimized through evolution to target specific ion channels and receptors with very high affinities and selectivities. Side effects of currently available therapies often arise from their lack of selectivity between pharmacologically relevant targets and targets that have a similar structure but different function. As conopeptides can be highly selective between closely related receptor subtypes, they could meet specific therapeutic needs with a reduced likelihood of side effects.

Inhibition of NMDA-induced currents by conantokin-G and conantokin-T in cultured embryonic murine hippocampal neurons

Conantokin-G (con-G) and conantokin-T (con-T) are small (17 and 21 amino acids, respectively) gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) containing peptides derived from the venoms of marine cone snails that are potent and selective inhibitors of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. In this study, the effects of con-G and con-T on NMDA-evoked responses were evaluated in mouse primary hippocampal neuronal cultures using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Under equilibrium conditions, NMDA-induced currents were inhibited by con-G and con-T (10 nM-100 microM) in a dose-dependent manner while maintaining a holding potential of -70 mV. In the presence of saturating amounts of NMDA (100 microM) and glycine (1 microM), the IC50 values obtained were 487 +/- 85 nM for con-G and 1030 +/- 130 nM for con-T. NMDA (10 microM-1 mM) dose-response curves produced in the presence of con-G or con-T (1 or 3 microM) resulted in a downward shift of the current response at saturation with NMDA, without affecting the EC50. The maximum response obtainable in the absence of peptide could not be achieved by increasing concentrations of NMDA. The same effect was also observed for conantokin inhibition of spermine-potentiated responses. Association rate constants (k(on)) for the peptides were determined in the presence of NMDA and glycine, with and without the addition of spermine. Using a single binding site bimolecular model, k(on) values were 3.1 +/- 0.2 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1) for con-G and 3.2 +/- 0.1 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1) for con-T in the absence of spermine. The added presence of a saturating amount of spermine (300 microM) resulted in an approximate 60% increase in the k(on) values for both con-G and con-T. These results demonstrate that con-T and con-G inhibit NMDA-evoked currents, as well as the potentiation by spermine, in what appears to be a noncompetitive manner, and that spermine increases the rate of conantokin inhibition.

Calcium binding mode of gamma-carboxyglutamic acids in conantokins

Conantokin-T (con-T) and conantokin-G (con-G) are two highly homologous peptide toxins found in Conus venom. The former is a 21-residue peptide with four gamma-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla) residues (at positions 3, 4, 10 and 14), while the latter is a 17-residue peptide with five gamma-carboxyglutamic acid residues (at positions 3, 4, 7, 10 and 14). Despite the apparent similarity in number and relative positions of the gamma-carboxyglutamic acid residues, (113)Cd-NMR studies indicated a distinct metal binding behavior for con-G and con-T. There appears to be four binding sites in con-G in contrast to one metal binding site in con-T. To elucidate the mode of calcium binding by the gamma-carboxyglutamic acid residues in these conantokins, we designed various analogous peptides with their gamma-carboxyglutamic acid replaced by other amino acid residues. (113)Cd-NMR experiments on conantokin analogues reveal that the major difference in the number of metal binding sites between con-G and con-T is due to the residue at position 7. We also performed molecular simulations to calculate the relative binding free energies of several potential binding sites. Based on our theoretical and experimental results, we propose a 'four-site' binding model for conantokin-G and a 'single-site' binding model for conantokin-T.

NMDA-receptor antagonist requirements in conantokin-G

A series of variants of the neuroactive 17-residue gamma-carboxyglutamate-(Gla)-containing polypeptide, conantokin-G (con-G), were synthesized with the intention of determining those features that were important for its N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-targeted antagonist activity and for adoption of its divalent cation-dependent alpha-helical conformation. Employing the binding of [3H]dizolcipine (MK-801) as an assay for open receptor ion channels in rat brain membranes, which displays inhibition by con-G (IC50 = 0.48 microM), it was found that replacement by an Ala residue of Gla4 led to complete inactivation of the peptide, whereas a similar replacement of Gla3 resulted in a 20-fold decreased potency. Ala substitutions for Gla10 and Gla14 did not substantially affect [3H]MK-801 binding. This same substitution at Gla7 appeared to slightly enhance binding. Ala replacements of non-Gla residues demonstrated that four of them, viz. Glu2, Leu5, Gln9, and Ile12, possessed at least 200-fold decreases in inhibitory potency, whereas similar replacements at Gly1, Leu11, and Arg13 resulted in peptides with 8- to 12-fold increases in the IC50 values. The remaining amino acid residues tested in the single Ala replacement series showed no significant changes in the inhibitory characteristics of wild-type con-G. Additional studies with carboxyl-terminal truncated peptides revealed that the carboxyl-terminal 4 amino acids were unimportant for this activity. There was no strict correlation of inhibition of [3H]MK-801 binding with the ability of these peptides to form cation-dependent alpha-helices. Peptides with notably low alpha-helical content in the presence of these cations were lacking at least one, or both, of Gla10 and Gla14. Con-G[Gla3,4,7,10,14E] and con-G[Gla7,10,14E] were the only peptides that remained in a completely random conformation upon metal ion addition.