1
|
Alarcan J, Braeuning A. Effects of okadaic acid, azaspiracid-1, yessotoxin and their binary mixtures on human intestinal Caco-2 cells. EXCLI JOURNAL 2024; 23:509-522. [PMID: 38741723 PMCID: PMC11089091 DOI: 10.17179/excli2023-6884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Phycotoxins are responsible for foodborne intoxications. Symptoms depend on the ingested toxins but mostly imply gastro-intestinal and neurological disorders. Importantly, humans are exposed to combinations of several phycotoxins, resulting in possible mixture effects. Most previous studies, however, have been focused on single toxin effects. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of binary mixtures of three main phycotoxins, okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) and yessotoxin (YTX), on human intestinal Caco-2 cells. The focus was placed on cell viability studies and inflammation responses using a multi-parametric approach to assess cell population (nuclei staining), cell metabolism/viability (reductase activity and lysosomal integrity), and release of inflammation markers (e.g., interleukins). Mixture effects were evaluated using the concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA) models. Our assays show that none of the toxins had an impact on the cell population in the tested concentration range. Only OA modulated reductase activity, while all three toxins had strong effects on lysosomal integrity. Furthermore, all toxins triggered the release of interleukin 8 (IL-8), with OA being most potent. Mixture effect analysis showed additivity in most cases. However, supra-additivity was observed in regards to IL-6 and IL-8 release for combinations implying high concentrations of OA. This study extends the knowledge on mixture effects of phycotoxins in human cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Alarcan
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Albert Braeuning
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tebben J, Zurhelle C, Tubaro A, Samdal IA, Krock B, Kilcoyne J, Sosa S, Trainer VL, Deeds JR, Tillmann U. Structure and toxicity of AZA-59, an azaspiracid shellfish poisoning toxin produced by Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae). HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 124:102388. [PMID: 37164556 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
To date, the putative shellfish toxin azaspiracid 59 (AZA-59) produced by Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) has been the only AZA found in isolates from the Pacific Northwest coast of the USA (Northeast Pacific Ocean). Anecdotal reports of sporadic diarrhetic shellfish poisoning-like illness, with the absence of DSP toxin or Vibrio contamination, led to efforts to look for other potential toxins, such as AZAs, in water and shellfish from the region. A. poporum was found in Puget Sound and the outer coast of Washington State, USA, and a novel AZA (putative AZA-59) was detected in low quantities in SPATT resins and shellfish. Here, an A. poporum strain from Puget Sound was mass-cultured and AZA-59 was subsequently purified and structurally characterized. In vitro cytotoxicity of AZA-59 towards Jurkat T lymphocytes and acute intraperitoneal toxicity in mice in comparison to AZA-1 allowed the derivation of a provisional toxicity equivalency factor of 0.8 for AZA-59. Quantification of AZA-59 using ELISA and LC-MS/MS yielded reasonable quantitative results when AZA-1 was used as an external reference standard. This study assesses the toxic potency of AZA-59 and will inform guidelines for its potential monitoring in case of increasing toxin levels in edible shellfish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Tebben
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany.
| | - Christian Zurhelle
- University of Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Chemistry, Leobener Straße 6, Bremen, 28359, Germany
| | - Aurelia Tubaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, Trieste, 34127, Italy
| | | | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Silvio Sosa
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, Trieste, 34127, Italy
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Olympic Natural Resources Center, University of Washington, 1455 S. Forks Ave, Forks, WA 98331, United States
| | - Jonathan R Deeds
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland, 20740, United States of America
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Qiu J, Zhang J, Li A. Cytotoxicity and intestinal permeability of phycotoxins assessed by the human Caco-2 cell model. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 249:114447. [PMID: 38321666 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Phycotoxins are a class of multiple natural metabolites produced by microalgae in marine and freshwater ecosystems that bioaccumulate in food webs, particularly in shellfish, having a great impact on human health. Phycotoxins are mainly leached and absorbed in the small intestine when human consumers accidentally ingest toxic aquatic products contaminated by them. To assess the intestinal uptake and damage of phycotoxins, a typical in vitro model was developed and widely applied using the human colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cell line. In this review, the application cases were summarized for multiple phycotoxins, including microcystins (MCs), cylindrospermopsins (CYNs), domoic acids (DAs), saxitoxins (STXs), palytoxins (PLTXs), okadaic acids (OAs), pectenotoxins (PTXs) and azaspiracids (AZAs). The results of the previous studies showed that each group of phycotoxins presented different cytotoxicity and mechanisms to Caco-2 cells, and significant discrepancies in the transport of phycotoxin across the Caco-2 cell monolayers. Therefore, this review describes the evaluation assays of the Caco-2 cell monolayer model, illustrates the principles of several primary cytotoxicity evaluation assays, and summarizes the cytotoxicity of each group of phycotoxins to Caco-2 cells line and their cellular transport, and finally proposes the development of multicellular intestinal models for future comprehensive studies on the toxicity and absorption of phycotoxins in the intestine. It will improve the understanding of Caco-2 cell monolayer models in the toxicology studies on phycotoxins and the potentially detrimental effects of microalgal toxins on the human intestine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jingrui Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Momeni T, Zadsirjan V, Hadi Meshkatalsadat M, Pourmohammadi‐Mahunaki M. Applications of Cobalt‐Catalyzed Reactions in the Total Synthesis of Natural Products. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202202816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tayebeh Momeni
- Department of Chemistry Qom University of Technology Qom Iran 3718146645
- Department of Chemistry School of Science Alzahra University Vanak Tehran Iran
| | - Vahideh Zadsirjan
- Department of Chemistry Malek Ashtar University of Technology Tehran Iran
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Acute Toxicity by Oral Co-Exposure to Palytoxin and Okadaic Acid in Mice. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20120735. [PMID: 36547882 PMCID: PMC9781071 DOI: 10.3390/md20120735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequent occurrence of marine dinoflagellates producing palytoxin (PLTX) or okadaic acid (OA) raises concern for the possible co-presence of these toxins in seafood, leading to additive or synergistic adverse effects in consumers. Thus, the acute oral toxicity of PLTX and OA association was evaluated in mice: groups of eight female CD-1 mice were administered by gavage with combined doses of PLTX (30, 90 or 270 μg/kg) and OA (370 μg/kg), or with each individual toxin, recording signs up to 24 h (five mice) and 14 days (three mice). Lethal effects occurred only after PLTX (90 or 270 μg/kg) exposure, alone or combined with OA, also during the 14-day recovery. PLTX induced scratching, piloerection, abdominal swelling, muscle spasms, paralysis and dyspnea, which increased in frequency or duration when co-administered with OA. The latter induced only diarrhea. At 24 h, PLTX (90 or 270 μg/kg) and OA caused wall redness in the small intestine or pale fluid accumulation in its lumen, respectively. These effects co-occurred in mice co-exposed to PLTX (90 or 270 μg/kg) and OA, and were associated with slight ulcers and inflammation at forestomach. PLTX (270 μg/kg alone or 90 μg/kg associated with OA) also decreased the liver/body weight ratio, reducing hepatocyte glycogen (270 μg/kg, alone or combined with OA). No alterations were recorded in surviving mice after 14 days. Overall, the study suggests additive effects of PLTX and OA that should be considered for their risk assessment as seafood contaminants.
Collapse
|
6
|
Costas C, Louzao MC, Raposo-García S, Vale C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Intestinal secretory mechanisms in Okadaic acid induced diarrhoea. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 169:113449. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
|
7
|
Louzao MC, Vilariño N, Vale C, Costas C, Cao A, Raposo-Garcia S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Current Trends and New Challenges in Marine Phycotoxins. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20030198. [PMID: 35323497 PMCID: PMC8950113 DOI: 10.3390/md20030198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine phycotoxins are a multiplicity of bioactive compounds which are produced by microalgae and bioaccumulate in the marine food web. Phycotoxins affect the ecosystem, pose a threat to human health, and have important economic effects on aquaculture and tourism worldwide. However, human health and food safety have been the primary concerns when considering the impacts of phycotoxins. Phycotoxins toxicity information, often used to set regulatory limits for these toxins in shellfish, lacks traceability of toxicity values highlighting the need for predefined toxicological criteria. Toxicity data together with adequate detection methods for monitoring procedures are crucial to protect human health. However, despite technological advances, there are still methodological uncertainties and high demand for universal phycotoxin detectors. This review focuses on these topics, including uncertainties of climate change, providing an overview of the current information as well as future perspectives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Celia Costas
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Alejandro Cao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Sandra Raposo-Garcia
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Otero P, Silva M. Emerging Marine Biotoxins in European Waters: Potential Risks and Analytical Challenges. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:199. [PMID: 35323498 PMCID: PMC8955394 DOI: 10.3390/md20030199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms pose a challenge regarding food safety due to their erratic nature and forming circumstances which are yet to be disclosed. The best strategy to protect human consumers is through legislation and monitoring strategies. Global warming and anthropological intervention aided the migration and establishment of emerging toxin producers into Europe's temperate waters, creating a new threat to human public health. The lack of information, standards, and reference materials delay effective solutions, being a matter of urgent resolution. In this work, the recent findings of the presence of emerging azaspiracids, spirolildes, pinnatoxins, gymnodimines, palitoxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, and tetrodotoxins on European Coasts are addressed. The information concerning emerging toxins such as new matrices, locations, and toxicity assays is paramount to set the risk assessment guidelines, regulatory levels, and analytical methodology that would protect the consumers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
A Generic LC-HRMS Screening Method for Marine and Freshwater Phycotoxins in Fish, Shellfish, Water, and Supplements. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110823. [PMID: 34822607 PMCID: PMC8619867 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins occur in various marine and freshwater environments, and can accumulate in edible species such as fish, crabs, and shellfish. Human exposure to these toxins can take place, for instance, through consumption of contaminated species or supplements and through the ingestion of contaminated water. Symptoms of phycotoxin intoxication include paralysis, diarrhea, and amnesia. When the cause of an intoxication cannot directly be found, a screening method is required to identify the causative toxin. In this work, such a screening method was developed and validated for marine and freshwater phycotoxins in different matrices: fish, shellfish, water, and food supplements. Two LC methods were developed: one for hydrophilic and one for lipophilic phycotoxins. Sample extracts were measured in full scan mode with an Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometer. Additionally, a database was created to process the data. The method was successfully validated for most matrices, and in addition, regulated lipophilic phycotoxins, domoic acid, and some paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins could be quantified in shellfish. The method showed limitations for hydrophilic phycotoxins in sea water and for lipophilic phycotoxins in food supplements. The developed method is a screening method; in order to confirm suspected compounds, comparison with a standard or an additional analysis such as NMR is required.
Collapse
|
10
|
Sandvik M, Miles CO, Løvberg KLE, Kryuchkov F, Wright EJ, Mudge EM, Kilcoyne J, Samdal IA. In Vitro Metabolism of Azaspiracids 1-3 with a Hepatopancreatic Fraction from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:11322-11335. [PMID: 34533950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins produced by the marine dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. that can accumulate in shellfish and cause food poisoning in humans. Of the 60 AZAs identified, levels of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 are regulated in shellfish as a food safety measure based on occurrence and toxicity. Information about the metabolism of AZAs in shellfish is limited. Therefore, a fraction of blue mussel hepatopancreas was made to study the metabolism of AZA1-3 in vitro. A range of AZA metabolites were detected by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry analysis, most notably the novel 22α-hydroxymethylAZAs AZA65 and AZA66, which were also detected in naturally contaminated mussels. These appear to be the first intermediates in the metabolic conversion of AZA1 and AZA2 to their corresponding 22α-carboxyAZAs (AZA17 and AZA19). α-Hydroxylation at C-23 was also a prominent metabolic pathway, producing AZA8, AZA12, and AZA5 as major metabolites of AZA1-3, respectively, and AZA67 and AZA68 as minor metabolites via double-hydroxylation of AZA1 and AZA2, but only low levels of 3β-hydroxylation were observed in this study. In vitro generation of algal toxin metabolites, such as AZA3, AZA5, AZA6, AZA8, AZA12, AZA17, AZA19, AZA65, and AZA66 that would otherwise have to be laboriously purified from shellfish, has the potential to be used for the production of standards for analytical and toxicological studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | | | - Fedor Kryuchkov
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth M Mudge
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Hassoun AER, Ujević I, Mahfouz C, Fakhri M, Roje-Busatto R, Jemaa S, Nazlić N. Occurrence of domoic acid and cyclic imines in marine biota from Lebanon-Eastern Mediterranean Sea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142542. [PMID: 33035983 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are naturally existing chemicals produced by toxic algae and can accumulate in marine biota. When consumed with seafood, these phycotoxins can cause human intoxication with symptoms varying from barely-noticed illness to death depending on the type of toxin and its concentration. Recently, the occurrence of marine biotoxins has been given special attention in the Mediterranean as it increased in frequency and severity due to anthropogenic pressures and climate change. Up to our knowledge, no previous study reported the presence of lipophilic toxins (LTs) and cyclic imines (CIs) in marine biota in Lebanon. Hence, this study reports LTs and CIs in marine organisms: one gastropod (Phorcus turbinatus), two bivalves (Spondylus spinosus and Patella rustica complex) and one fish species (Siganus rivulatus), collected from various Lebanese coastal areas. The results show values below the limit of detection (LOD) for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1 and 2, pectenotoxin-1 and 2, yessotoxins, azaspiracids and saxitoxins. The spiny oyster (S. spinosus) showed the highest levels of domoic acid (DA; 3.88 mg kg-1), gymnodimine (GYM-B) and spirolide (SPX) (102.9 and 15.07 μg kg-1, respectively) in congruence with the occurrence of high abundance of Pseudo-nitzchia spp., Gymnodinium spp., and Alexandrium spp. DA levels were below the European Union (EU) regulatory limit, but higher than the Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (0.9 μg g-1) for neurotoxicity in humans and lower than the Acute Reference Dose (30 μg kg-1 bw) both set by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009). Based on these findings, it is unlikely that a health risk exists due to the exposure to these toxins through seafood consumption in Lebanon. Despite this fact, the chronic toxicity of DA, GYMs and SPXs remains unclear and the effect of the repetitive consumption of contaminated seafood needs to be more investigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abed El Rahman Hassoun
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon.
| | - Ivana Ujević
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Céline Mahfouz
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Milad Fakhri
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Romana Roje-Busatto
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Sharif Jemaa
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Nikša Nazlić
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Karlson B, Andersen P, Arneborg L, Cembella A, Eikrem W, John U, West JJ, Klemm K, Kobos J, Lehtinen S, Lundholm N, Mazur-Marzec H, Naustvoll L, Poelman M, Provoost P, De Rijcke M, Suikkanen S. Harmful algal blooms and their effects in coastal seas of Northern Europe. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 102:101989. [PMID: 33875185 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HAB) are recurrent phenomena in northern Europe along the coasts of the Baltic Sea, Kattegat-Skagerrak, eastern North Sea, Norwegian Sea and the Barents Sea. These HABs have caused occasional massive losses for the aquaculture industry and have chronically affected socioeconomic interests in several ways. This status review gives an overview of historical HAB events and summarises reports to the Harmful Algae Event Database from 1986 to the end of year 2019 and observations made in long term monitoring programmes of potentially harmful phytoplankton and of phycotoxins in bivalve shellfish. Major HAB taxa causing fish mortalities in the region include blooms of the prymnesiophyte Chrysochromulina leadbeateri in northern Norway in 1991 and 2019, resulting in huge economic losses for fish farmers. A bloom of the prymesiophyte Prymnesium polylepis (syn. Chrysochromulina polylepis) in the Kattegat-Skagerrak in 1988 was ecosystem disruptive. Blooms of the prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis spp. have caused accumulations of foam on beaches in the southwestern North Sea and Wadden Sea coasts and shellfish mortality has been linked to their occurrence. Mortality of shellfish linked to HAB events has been observed in estuarine waters associated with influx of water from the southern North Sea. The first bloom of the dictyochophyte genus Pseudochattonella was observed in 1998, and since then such blooms have been observed in high cell densities in spring causing fish mortalities some years. Dinoflagellates, primarily Dinophysis spp., intermittently yield concentrations of Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins (DST) in blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, above regulatory limits along the coasts of Norway, Denmark and the Swedish west coast. On average, DST levels in shellfish have decreased along the Swedish and Norwegian Skagerrak coasts since approximately 2006, coinciding with a decrease in the cell abundance of D. acuta. Among dinoflagellates, Alexandrium species are the major source of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST) in the region. PST concentrations above regulatory levels were rare in the Skagerrak-Kattegat during the three decadal review period, but frequent and often abundant findings of Alexandrium resting cysts in surface sediments indicate a high potential risk for blooms. PST levels often above regulatory limits along the west coast of Norway are associated with A. catenella (ribotype Group 1) as the main toxin producer. Other Alexandrium species, such as A. ostenfeldii and A. minutum, are capable of producing PST among some populations but are usually not associated with PSP events in the region. The cell abundance of A. pseudogonyaulax, a producer of the ichthyotoxin goniodomin (GD), has increased in the Skagerrak-Kattegat since 2010, and may constitute an emerging threat. The dinoflagellate Azadinium spp. have been unequivocally linked to the presence of azaspiracid toxins (AZT) responsible for Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) in northern Europe. These toxins were detected in bivalve shellfish at concentrations above regulatory limits for the first time in Norway in blue mussels in 2005 and in Sweden in blue mussels and oysters (Ostrea edulis and Crassostrea gigas) in 2018. Certain members of the diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia produce the neurotoxin domoic acid and analogs known as Amnesic Shellfish Toxins (AST). Blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia were common in the North Sea and the Skagerrak-Kattegat, but levels of AST in bivalve shellfish were rarely above regulatory limits during the review period. Summer cyanobacteria blooms in the Baltic Sea are a concern mainly for tourism by causing massive fouling of bathing water and beaches. Some of the cyanobacteria produce toxins, e.g. Nodularia spumigena, producer of nodularin, which may be a human health problem and cause occasional dog mortalities. Coastal and shelf sea regions in northern Europe provide a key supply of seafood, socioeconomic well-being and ecosystem services. Increasing anthropogenic influence and climate change create environmental stressors causing shifts in the biogeography and intensity of HABs. Continued monitoring of HAB and phycotoxins and the operation of historical databases such as HAEDAT provide not only an ongoing status report but also provide a way to interpret causes and mechanisms of HABs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Karlson
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Research and Development, Oceanography, Sven Källfelts gata 15, SE-426 71 Västra Frölunda, Sweden.
| | - Per Andersen
- Aarhus University, Marine Ecology, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
| | - Lars Arneborg
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Research and Development, Oceanography, Sven Källfelts gata 15, SE-426 71 Västra Frölunda, Sweden
| | - Allan Cembella
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Wenche Eikrem
- University of Oslo, Department of Biosciences, P. O. Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway; Norwegian Institute for Water Research. Gaustadalleen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity, Ammerländer Heerstraße 231, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Jennifer Joy West
- CICERO Center for International Climate Research, P.O. Box 1129, 0318 Blindern, Oslo Norway
| | - Kerstin Klemm
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Justyna Kobos
- University of Gdansk, Institute of Oceanography, Division of Marine Biotechnology, Marszalka Pilsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia; POLAND
| | - Sirpa Lehtinen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nina Lundholm
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Hanna Mazur-Marzec
- University of Gdansk, Institute of Oceanography, Division of Marine Biotechnology, Marszalka Pilsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia; POLAND
| | - Lars Naustvoll
- Institute of Marine Research, Flødevigen Marine Research Station, N-4817 His, Norway
| | - Marnix Poelman
- Wageningen UR, Wageningen Marine Research, P.O. box 77, 4400 AB, Yerseke, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Provoost
- Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Project Office for IODE, Wandelaarkaai 7/61 - 8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Maarten De Rijcke
- Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Wandelaarkaai 7, B-8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Sanna Suikkanen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bresnan E, Arévalo F, Belin C, Branco MAC, Cembella AD, Clarke D, Correa J, Davidson K, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Lozano RF, Fernández-Tejedor M, Guðfinnsson H, Carbonell DJ, Laza-Martinez A, Lemoine M, Lewis AM, Menéndez LM, Maskrey BH, McKinney A, Pazos Y, Revilla M, Siano R, Silva A, Swan S, Turner AD, Schweibold L, Provoost P, Enevoldsen H. Diversity and regional distribution of harmful algal events along the Atlantic margin of Europe. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 102:101976. [PMID: 33875184 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The IOC-ICES-PICES Harmful Algal Event Database (HAEDAT) was used to describe the diversity and spatiotemporal distribution of harmful algal events along the Atlantic margin of Europe from 1987 - 2018. The majority of events recorded are caused by Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins (DSTs). These events are recorded annually over a wide geographic area from southern Spain to northern Scotland and Iceland, and are responsible for annual closures of many shellfish harvesting areas. The dominant causative dinoflagellates, members of the morphospecies 'Dinophysis acuminata complex' and D. acuta, are common in the waters of the majority of countries affected. There are regional differences in the causative species associated with PST events; the coasts of Spain and Portugal with the dinoflagellates Alexandrium minutum and Gymnodinium catenatum, north west France/south west England/south Ireland with A. minutum, and Scotland/Faroe Islands/Iceland with A. catenella. This can influence the duration and spatial scale of PST events as well as the toxicity of shellfish. The diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis is the most widespread Domoic Acid (DA) producer, with records coming from Spain, Portugal, France, Ireland and the UK. Amnesic Shellfish Toxins (ASTs) have caused prolonged closures for the scallop fishing industry due to the slow depuration rate of DA. Amendments to EU shellfish hygiene regulations introduced between 2002 and 2005 facilitated end-product testing and sale of adductor muscle. This reduced the impact of ASTs on the scallop fishing industry and thus the number of recorded HAEDAT events. Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recent toxin group responsible for events to be characterised in the ICES area. Events associated with AZAs have a discrete distribution with the majority recorded along the west coast of Ireland. Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) has been an emerging issue in the Canary Islands and Madeira since 2004. The majority of aquaculture and wild fish mortality events are associated with blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi and raphidophyte Heterosigma akashiwo. Such fish killing events occur infrequently yet can cause significant mortalities. Interannual variability was observed in the annual number of HAEDAT areas with events associated with individual shellfish toxin groups. HABs represent a continued risk for the aquaculture industry along the Atlantic margin of Europe and should be accounted for when considering expansion of the industry or operational shifts to offshore areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Bresnan
- Marine Scotland Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, AB11 9DB, U.K..
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Catherine Belin
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) VIGIES F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Maria A C Branco
- Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | - Dave Clarke
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Jorge Correa
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Aitor Laza-Martinez
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Maud Lemoine
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) VIGIES F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Adam M Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Luz Mamán Menéndez
- Laboratorio de Control de Calidad de los Recursos Pesqueros, Huelva, Spain
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - April McKinney
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast, BT9 5PX, U.K
| | - Yolanda Pazos
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Marta Revilla
- AZTI, Marine Research Division, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), E-20110 Pasaia, Spain
| | - Raffaele Siano
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER), DYNECO F-29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Alexandra Silva
- Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sarah Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | | | | | - Henrik Enevoldsen
- IOC Science and Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Cho K, Heo J, Han J, Hong HD, Jeon H, Hwang HJ, Hong CY, Kim D, Han JW, Baek K. Industrial Applications of Dinoflagellate Phycotoxins Based on Their Modes of Action: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E805. [PMID: 33353166 PMCID: PMC7766252 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dinoflagellates are an important group of phytoplanktons, characterized by two dissimilar flagella and distinctive features of both plants and animals. Dinoflagellate-generated harmful algal blooms (HABs) and associated damage frequently occur in coastal areas, which are concomitant with increasing eutrophication and climate change derived from anthropogenic waste and atmospheric carbon dioxide, respectively. The severe damage and harmful effects of dinoflagellate phycotoxins in the fishing industry have been recognized over the past few decades, and the management and monitoring of HABs have attracted much attention, leaving aside the industrial application of their valuable toxins. Specific modes of action of the organisms' toxins can effectively be utilized for producing beneficial materials, such as Botox and other therapeutic agents. This review aims to explore the potential industrial applications of marine dinoflagellate phycotoxins; furthermore, this review focuses on their modes of action and summarizes the available knowledge on them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kichul Cho
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Jina Heo
- Growth Engine Research Department, Chungbuk Research Institute (CRI), Chungju, Chungchungbuk-do 28517, Korea;
| | - Jinwook Han
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hyun Dae Hong
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hancheol Jeon
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hyun-Ju Hwang
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Chang-Yu Hong
- Department of Environmental and Urban Research, Jeju Research Institute, Jeju-si, Jeju-do 63147, Korea;
| | - Daekyung Kim
- Daegu Center, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daegu, Gyeongsangbuk-do 41566, Korea
| | - Jong Won Han
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Kyunghwa Baek
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Talić S, Škobić D, Dedić A, Nazlić N, Ujević I, Ivanković A, Pavela-Vrančić M. The occurrence of lipophilic toxins in shellfish from the Middle Adriatic Sea. Toxicon 2020; 186:19-25. [PMID: 32738246 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The first survey of the phycotoxin profile in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from the coastal waters of Bosnia and Herzegovina (The Bay of Neum, Middle Adriatic Sea) in correlation to the Makarska City Bay (Croatia, Middle Adriatic Sea) was conducted in 2017. Throughout the monitoring period, occasions of gymnodimine (GYM) and azaspiracid (AZA2) shellfish toxicity were recorded in concentrations that do not endanger human health. The occurrence of yessotoxins (YTXs), the most common toxins found in the Adriatic Sea, was correlated to the presence of the Gonyaulax species, a potential source of YTX. The DSP group of toxins is represented by the ester-OA. Phytoplankton analysis confirmed the presence of dinoflagellates from the Prorocentrum genus, a species associated with DSP toxicity. Occurrence frequency and variability of toxin composition were investigated in conjunction to physico-chemical parameters in the surrounding sea water. In the central Adriatic Sea, the infestation period ranges in general from June to August. However, the depuration phase extended beyond September in the Bay of Neum, increasing the length of the decontamination period.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stanislava Talić
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Education, University of Mostar, Matice hrvatske bb, 88 000, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
| | - Dragan Škobić
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Education, University of Mostar, Matice hrvatske bb, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Anita Dedić
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Education, University of Mostar, Matice hrvatske bb, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Nikša Nazlić
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000, Split, Croatia
| | - Ivana Ujević
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000, Split, Croatia
| | - Anita Ivanković
- Faculty of Agronomy and Food Technology, University of Mostar, Biskupa Čule bb, 88000, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Maja Pavela-Vrančić
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Ruđera Boškovića 33, 21000, Split, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Reale O, Huguet A, Fessard V. Co-culture model of Caco-2/HT29-MTX cells: A promising tool for investigation of phycotoxins toxicity on the intestinal barrier. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 273:128497. [PMID: 34756374 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Most lipophilic phycotoxins have been involved in human intoxications but some of these toxins have never been proven to induce human gastro-intestinal symptoms, although intestinal damage in rodents has been documented. For investigating the in vitro toxicological profile of lipophilic phycotoxins on intestine, the epithelial Caco-2 cell line has been the most commonly used model. Nevertheless, considering the complexity of the intestinal epithelium, in vitro co-cultures integrating enterocyte-like and mucus-secreting cell types are expected to provide more relevant data. In this study, the toxic effects (viability, inflammation, cellular monolayer integrity, modulation of cell type proportion and production of mucus) of four lipophilic phycotoxins (PTX2, YTX, AZA1 and OA) were evaluated in Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-cultured cells. The four toxins induced a reduction of viability from 20% to 50% and affected the monolayer integrity. Our results showed that the HT29-MTX cells population were more sensitive to OA and PTX2 than Caco-2 cells. Among the four phycotoxins, OA induced inflammation (28-fold increase of IL-8 release) and also a slight increase of both mucus production (up-regulation of mucins mRNA expression) and mucus secretion (mucus area and density). For PTX2 we observed an increase of IL-8 release but weaker than OA. Intestinal cell models integrating several cell types can contribute to improve hazard characterization and to describe more accurately the modes of action of phycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Océane Reale
- ANSES, Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Antoine Huguet
- ANSES, Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- ANSES, Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères, 35306, France.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Yang L, Singh A, Lankford SK, Stuart J, Rice D, Wu WH, Hungerford JM. A Rapid Method for the Detection of Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins and Azaspiracid Shellfish Toxins in Washington State Shellfish by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J AOAC Int 2020; 103:792-799. [DOI: 10.1093/jaoacint/qsaa009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DSTs) in domestic shellfish and azaspiracids (AZAs) in imported products are emerging seafood safety issues in the United States. In addition to causing gastrointestinal illnesses, some of these toxins are also carcinogenic and genotoxic. Efficient analytical strategies are needed for their monitoring in U.S. domestic and imported shellfish.
Objective
In the US, DSTs and AZAs are the only lipophilic shellfish toxins addressed in regulations. Streamlining of existing methods for several classes of lipophilic toxins, based on liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, was pursued.
Method
The resulting simplified LC-MS/MS method is focused on the separation and detection of just the AZAs and total DSTs using a C18 Hypersil gold column. Filter vials are used to expedite and simplify sample handling.
Results
The method has a run time of 7.25 min. LOQs for the AZAs and DSTs in shellfish were 0.3–0.4 µg/kg. Recoveries (AZAs and total DSTs) for three spiking levels in three matrixes ranged from 68 to 129%. Trueness was established using certified reference materials. Method equivalence was established using shellfish provided blind by the Washington State Department of Health Public Health Laboratory (WA DOH PHL). Data obtained from these samples agreed well with data from another LC-MS/MS method used in harvest control by WA DOH PHL (R = 0.999; P < 0.0001).
Conclusions
The LC-MS/MS method described offers more rapid sample handling and has excellent sensitivity, linearity, and repeatability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Yang
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of the Commissioner, Commissioner’s Fellowship Program, Office of Regulatory Affairs, Office of Regulatory Science, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 22201 23rd Dr SE, Bothell, WA 98012, USA
| | - Avi Singh
- Washington State Department of Health, Public Health Laboratories, 1610 NE 150th St, Shoreline, WA 98155, USA
| | - Shelley K Lankford
- Washington State Department of Health, Public Health Laboratories, 1610 NE 150th St, Shoreline, WA 98155, USA
| | - James Stuart
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Regulatory Affairs, Office of Regulatory Science, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 22201 23rd Dr SE, Bothell, WA 98012, USA
| | - Daniel Rice
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Regulatory Affairs, Office of Regulatory Science, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 22201 23rd Dr SE, Bothell, WA 98012, USA
| | - Wen-Hsin Wu
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Regulatory Affairs, Office of Regulatory Science, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 22201 23rd Dr SE, Bothell, WA 98012, USA
| | - James M Hungerford
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Regulatory Affairs, Office of Regulatory Science, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 22201 23rd Dr SE, Bothell, WA 98012, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kaur N, Verma Y, Ahlawat N, Grewal P, Bhardwaj P, Jangid NK. Copper-assisted synthesis of five-memberedO-heterocycles. INORG NANO-MET CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/24701556.2020.1724144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Navjeet Kaur
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, India
| | - Yamini Verma
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, India
| | - Neha Ahlawat
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, India
| | - Pooja Grewal
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, India
| | - Pranshu Bhardwaj
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, India
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Biological Effects of the Azaspiracid-Producing Dinoflagellate Azadinium dexteroporum in Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Mediterranean Sea. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17100595. [PMID: 31652521 PMCID: PMC6835248 DOI: 10.3390/md17100595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins including a variety of analogues. Recently, novel AZAs produced by the Mediterranean dinoflagellate Azadinium dexteroporum were discovered (AZA-54, AZA-55, 3-epi-AZA-7, AZA-56, AZA-57 and AZA-58) and their biological effects have not been investigated yet. This study aimed to identify the biological responses (biomarkers) induced in mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis after the bioaccumulation of AZAs from A. dexteroporum. Organisms were fed with A. dexteroporum for 21 days and subsequently subjected to a recovery period (normal diet) of 21 days. Exposed organisms accumulated AZA-54, 3-epi-AZA-7 and AZA-55, predominantly in the digestive gland. Mussels' haemocytes showed inhibition of phagocytosis activity, modulation of the composition of haemocytic subpopulation and damage to lysosomal membranes; the digestive tissue displayed thinned tubule walls, consumption of storage lipids and accumulation of lipofuscin. Slight genotoxic damage was also observed. No clear occurrence of oxidative stress and alteration of nervous activity was detected in AZA-accumulating mussels. Most of the altered parameters returned to control levels after the recovery phase. The toxic effects detected in M. galloprovincialis demonstrate a clear biological impact of the AZAs produced by A. dexteroporum, and could be used as early indicators of contamination associated with the ingestion of seafood.
Collapse
|
20
|
Kaur N, Bhardwaj P, Devi M, Verma Y, Grewal P. Gold-catalyzed C–O bond forming reactions for the synthesis of six-membered O-heterocycles. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-0920-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
|
21
|
Liu Y, Yu RC, Kong FZ, Li C, Dai L, Chen ZF, Geng HX, Zhou MJ. Contamination status of lipophilic marine toxins in shellfish samples from the Bohai Sea, China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 249:171-180. [PMID: 30884396 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.02.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine toxins in shellfish pose significant threats to the health of seafood consumers. To assess the contamination status of shellfish by lipophilic marine toxins in the Bohai Sea, nine species of shellfish periodically collected from five representative aquaculture zones throughout a year were analyzed with a method of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Lipophilic marine toxins, including okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), homo-yessotoxin (homo-YTX), azaspiracids (AZA2 and AZA3), gymnodimine (GYM), and 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13-DesMe-C), were detected in more than 95 percent of the shellfish samples. Toxins PTX2, YTX, 13-DesMe-C and GYM were predominant components detected in shellfish samples. Scallops, clams and mussels accumulated much higher level of lipophilic marine toxins compared to oysters. Toxin content in shellfish samples collected from different sampling locations showed site-specific seasonal variation patterns. High level of toxins was found during the stages from December to February and June to July in Hangu, while from March to April and August to September in Laishan. Some toxic algae, including Dinophysis acuminata, D. fortii, Prorocentrum lima, Gonyaulax spinifera and Lingulodinium polyedrum, were identified as potential origins of lipophilic marine toxins in the Bohai Sea. The results will offer a sound basis for monitoring marine toxins and protecting the health of seafood consumers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Ren-Cheng Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Fan-Zhou Kong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Chen Li
- Research Center of Analysis and Measurement, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Li Dai
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Zhen-Fan Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Hui-Xia Geng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Ming-Jiang Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Azaspiracids Increase Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases Activity in Hepatocytes: Involvement of Potassium and Chloride Ions. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17050276. [PMID: 31072021 PMCID: PMC6562809 DOI: 10.3390/md17050276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins that are produced by Azadinium and Amphidoma dinoflagellates that can contaminate edible shellfish inducing a foodborne poisoning in humans, which is characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms. Among these, AZA1, -2, and -3 are regulated in the European Union, being the most important in terms of occurrence and toxicity. In vivo studies in mice showed that, in addition to gastrointestinal effects, AZA1 induces liver alterations that are visible as a swollen organ, with the presence of hepatocellular fat droplets and vacuoles. Hence, an in vitro study was carried out to investigate the effects of AZA1, -2, and -3 on liver cells, using human non-tumor IHH hepatocytes. RESULTS The exposure of IHH cells to AZA1, -2, or -3 (5 × 10-12-1 × 10-7 M) for 24 h did not affect the cell viability and proliferation (Sulforhodamine B assay and 3H-Thymidine incorporation assay), but they induced a significant concentration-dependent increase of mitochondrial dehydrogenases activity (MTT reduction assay). This effect depends on the activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I and II, being counteracted by rotenone and tenoyl trifluoroacetone, respectively. Furthermore, AZAs-increased mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity was almost totally suppressed in the K+-, Cl--, and Na+-free media and sensitive to the specific inhibitors of KATP and hERG potassium channels, Na+/K+, ATPase, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channels. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that AZA mitochondrial effects in hepatocytes derive from an imbalance of intracellular levels of K+ and, in particular, Cl- ions, as demonstrated by the selective reduction of toxin effects by CFTR chloride channel inhibition.
Collapse
|
23
|
Farabegoli F, Blanco L, Rodríguez LP, Vieites JM, Cabado AG. Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E188. [PMID: 29844286 PMCID: PMC6025170 DOI: 10.3390/md16060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers' health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Farabegoli
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Lucía Blanco
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Laura P Rodríguez
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Juan Manuel Vieites
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Ana García Cabado
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Bodero M, Hoogenboom RL, Bovee TF, Portier L, de Haan L, Peijnenburg A, Hendriksen PJ. Whole genome mRNA transcriptomics analysis reveals different modes of action of the diarrheic shellfish poisons okadaic acid and dinophysis toxin-1 versus azaspiracid-1 in Caco-2 cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 46:102-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
25
|
|
26
|
Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) after acute oral exposure of azaspiracid 1, -2 and -3 in mice. Toxicol Lett 2017; 282:136-146. [PMID: 29107028 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine algal toxins that can be accumulated by edible shellfish to cause a foodborne gastrointestinal poisoning in humans. In the European Union, only AZA1, -2 and -3 are currently regulated and their concentration in shellfish is determined through their toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) derived from the intraperitoneal lethal potency in mice. Nevertheless, considering the potential human exposure by oral route, AZAs TEFs should be calculated by comparative oral toxicity data. Thus, the acute oral toxicity of AZA1, -2 and -3 was investigated in female CD-1 mice treated with different doses (AZA1: 135-1100μg/kg; AZA2 and AZA3: 300-1100μg/kg) and sacrificed after 24h or 14days. TEFs derived from the median lethal doses (LD50) were 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5, respectively for AZA1, -2 and -3. In fact, after 24h from gavage administration, LD50s were 443μg/kg (AZA1; 95% CL: 350-561μg/kg), 626μg/kg (AZA2; 95% CL: 430-911μg/kg) and 875μg/kg (AZA3; 95% CL: 757-1010μg/kg). Mice dead more than 5h after the treatment or those sacrificed after 24h (doses: ≥175μg AZA1/kg, ≥500μg AZA2/kg and ≥600μg AZA3/kg) showed enlarged pale liver, while increased serum markers of liver alteration were recorded even at the lowest doses. Blood chemistry revealed significantly increased serum levels of K+ ions (≥500mg/kg), whereas light microscopy showed tissue changes in the gastrointestinal tract, liver and spleen. No lethality, macroscopic, tissue or haematological changes were recorded two weeks post exposure, indicating reversible toxic effects. LC-MS/MS analysis of the main organs showed a dose-dependency in gastrointestinal absorption of these toxins: at 24h, the highest levels were detected in the stomach and, in descending order, in the intestinal content, liver, small intestine, kidneys, lungs, large intestine, heart as well as detectable traces in the brain. After 14days, AZA1 and AZA2 were still detectable in almost all the organs and intestinal content.
Collapse
|
27
|
Suzuki T. Regulatory Levels, Monitoring System of Shellfish Toxins and Instrumental Analyses. Food Hygiene and Safety Science (Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi) 2016; 57:117-131. [PMID: 27784862 DOI: 10.3358/shokueishi.57.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
28
|
Doerr B, O'Halloran J, O'Brien N, van Pelt F. Investigation of the genotoxic potential of the marine biotoxins azaspiracid 1-3. Toxicon 2016; 121:61-69. [PMID: 27576062 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recently discovered group of biotoxins and are the cause of azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP) in humans. To date over thirty analogues have been identified. However, toxicological studies of AZAs are limited due to the lack of availability of toxins and toxin standards. Most data available are on acute toxicity and there are no data available on genotoxicity of AZAs. This study presents an integrated approach investigating the genotoxic potential of AZA1-3 in cell culture systems using the Comet assay combined with assays to provide information on possible apoptotic processes, cytotoxicity and changes in cell number. Results demonstrate a time and dose dependent increase in DNA fragmentation in most cell lines, indicating a genotoxic effect of AZA1-3. However, a significant reduction in cell number and a clear shift from early to late apoptosis was observed for all analogues in Jurkat T cells and HepG-2 cells; CaCo-2 cells did not show a clear apoptotic profile. Late apoptotic/necrotic cells correlate well with the percentage of tail DNA for all analogues in all three cell lines. All data taken together indicate that AZA1-3 is not genotoxic per se and demonstrate apoptotic/necrotic processes to be involved to some extent in AZAs toxicity. The sensitivities of cell lines and the different potencies of AZA1-3 are in agreement with the literature available. The order of sensitivity for all three AZAs tested in the present study is, in increasing order, CaCo-2 cells < HepG-2 cells < Jurkat T cells. The order of potency of AZA1-3 varies among the cell lines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Doerr
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - John O'Halloran
- Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Nora O'Brien
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Frank van Pelt
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kaur N. Applications of gold catalysts for the synthesis of five-membered O-heterocycles. INORG NANO-MET CHEM 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/15533174.2015.1068809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Navjeet Kaur
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Banasthali, India
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Zhang Z, Chen Y, Adu-Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, Kenton NT, Forsyth CJ. Synthesis of the C22–C40 Domain of the Azaspiracids. Org Lett 2016; 18:1824-7. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.6b00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhigao Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Yong Chen
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Daniel Adu-Ampratwum
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Antony Akura Okumu
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Wang Y, Jiang M, Liu JT. Copper-Catalyzed Diastereoselective Synthesis of Trifluoromethylated Tetrahydrofurans. Adv Synth Catal 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201501166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
32
|
Ferron PJ, Dumazeau K, Beaulieu JF, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Combined Effects of Lipophilic Phycotoxins (Okadaic Acid, Azapsiracid-1 and Yessotoxin) on Human Intestinal Cells Models. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:50. [PMID: 26907345 PMCID: PMC4773803 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8020050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins are monitored in seafood because they can cause food poisonings in humans. Phycotoxins do not only occur singly but also as mixtures in shellfish. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro toxic interactions of binary combinations of three lipophilic phycotoxins commonly found in Europe (okadaic acid (OA), yessotoxin (YTX) and azaspiracid-1 (AZA-1)) using the neutral red uptake assay on two human intestinal cell models, Caco-2 and the human intestinal epithelial crypt-like cells (HIEC). Based on the cytotoxicity of individual toxins, we studied the interactions between toxins in binary mixtures using the combination index-isobologram equation, a method widely used in pharmacology to study drug interactions. This method quantitatively classifies interactions between toxins in mixtures as synergistic, additive or antagonistic. AZA-1/OA, and YTX/OA mixtures showed increasing antagonism with increasing toxin concentrations. In contrast, the AZA-1/YTX mixture showed increasing synergism with increasing concentrations, especially for mixtures with high YTX concentrations. These results highlight the hazard potency of AZA-1/YTX mixtures with regard to seafood intoxication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Jean Ferron
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| | - Kevin Dumazeau
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| | - Jean-François Beaulieu
- Laboratory of Intestinal Physiopathology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1G 0A2, Canada.
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Fougères 35300, France.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Louzao MC, Cantalapiedra AG, Santamarina G, Cifuentes JM, Vieira AC, Botana LM. Subacute Cardiovascular Toxicity of the Marine Phycotoxin Azaspiracid-1 in Rats. Toxicol Sci 2016; 151:104-14. [PMID: 26865666 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins produced by Azadinium spinosum that get accumulated in filter feeding shellfish through the food-web. The first intoxication was described in The Netherlands in 1990, and since then several episodes have been reported worldwide. Azaspiracid-1, AZA-2, and AZA-3 presence in shellfish is regulated by food safety authorities of several countries to protect human health. Azaspiracids have been related to widespread organ damage, tumorogenic properties and acute heart rhythm alterations in vivo but the mechanism of action remains unknown. Azaspiracid toxicity kinetics in vivo and in vitro suggests accumulative effects. We studied subacute cardiotoxicity in vivo after repeated exposure to AZA-1 by evaluation of the ECG, arterial blood pressure, plasmatic heart damage biomarkers, and myocardium structure and ultrastructure. Our results showed that four administrations of AZA-1 along 15 days caused functional signs of heart failure and structural heart alterations in rats at doses ranging from 1 to 55 µg/kg. Azaspiracid-1 altered arterial blood pressure, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 plasma levels, heart collagen deposition, and ultrastructure of the myocardium. Overall, these data indicate that repeated exposure to low amounts of AZA-1 causes cardiotoxicity, at doses that do not induce signs of other organic system toxicity. Remarkably, human exposure to AZAs considering current regulatory limits of these toxins may be dangerously close to clearly cardiotoxic doses in rats. These findings should be considered when human risk is estimated particularly in high cardiovascular risk subpopulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cristina Carrera
- *Departamento de Farmacología Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina
| | | | - Antonio G Cantalapiedra
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias
| | - Germán Santamarina
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias
| | - J Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Wang Y, Chen J, Li Z, Wang S, Shi Q, Cao W, Zheng X, Sun C, Wang X, Zheng L. Determination of typical lipophilic marine toxins in marine sediments from three coastal bays of China using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry after accelerated solvent extraction. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2015; 101:954-960. [PMID: 26507511 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A method based on sample preparation by accelerated solvent extraction and analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was validated and used for determination of seven typical lipophilic marine toxins (LMTs) in marine sediment samples collected from three typical coastal bays in China. Satisfactory specificity, reproducibility (RSDs ≤ 14.76%), stability (RSDs ≤ 17.37%), recovery (78.0%-109.0%), and detection limit (3.440 pg/g-61.85 pg/g) of the developed method were achieved. The results obtained from the analysis of samples from Hangzhou Bay revealed okadaic acid as the predominant LMT with concentrations ranging from 186.0 to 280.7 pg/g. Pecenotoxin-2 was quantified in sediment samples from Laizhou Bay at the concentrations from 256.4 to 944.9 pg/g. These results suggested that the proposed method was reliable for determining the typical LMTs in marine sediments and that the sediments obtained from Hangzhou Bay, Laizhou Bay and Jiaozhou Bay were all contaminated by certain amounts of LMTs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanlong Wang
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Junhui Chen
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China.
| | - Zhaoyong Li
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Shuai Wang
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Qian Shi
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Wei Cao
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Xiaoling Zheng
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Chengjun Sun
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Xiaoru Wang
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Li Zheng
- Research Center for Marine Ecology, The First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Hess P, Miles CO. Effects of Heating on Proportions of Azaspiracids 1-10 in Mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Identification of Carboxylated Precursors for Azaspiracids 5, 10, 13, and 15. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:10980-10987. [PMID: 26631586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins that induce human illness following the consumption of contaminated shellfish. European Union regulation stipulates that only raw shellfish are tested, yet shellfish are often cooked prior to consumption. Analysis of raw and heat-treated mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs revealed significant differences (up to 4.6-fold) in AZA1-3 (1-3) and 6 (6) values due to heat-induced chemical conversions. Consistent with previous studies, high levels of 3 and 6 were detected in some samples that were otherwise below the limit of quantitation before heating. Relative to 1, in heat-treated mussels the average (n = 40) levels of 3 (range, 11-502%) and 6 (range, 3-170%) were 62 and 31%, respectively. AZA4 (4) (range, <1-27%), AZA5 (5) (range, 1-21%), and AZA8 (8) (range, 1-27%) were each ∼5%, whereas AZA7 (7), AZA9 (9), and AZA10 (10) (range, <1-8%) were each under 1.5%. Levels of 5, 10, AZA13 (13), and AZA15 (15) increased after heating, leading to the identification of novel carboxylated AZA precursors in raw shellfish extracts, which were shown by deuterium labeling to be precursors for 5, 10, 13, and 15.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada , Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Philipp Hess
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Ifremer , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Hjørnevik LV, Frøyset AK, Grønset TA, Rungruangsak-Torrissen K, Fladmark KE. Algal Toxin Azaspiracid-1 Induces Early Neuronal Differentiation and Alters Peripherin Isoform Stoichiometry. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7390-402. [PMID: 26694421 PMCID: PMC4699245 DOI: 10.3390/md13127072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid-1 is an algal toxin that accumulates in edible mussels, and ingestion may result in human illness as manifested by vomiting and diarrhoea. When injected into mice, it causes neurotoxicological symptoms and death. Although it is well known that azaspiracid-1 is toxic to most cells and cell lines, little is known about its biological target(s). A rat PC12 cell line, commonly used as a model for the peripheral nervous system, was used to study the neurotoxicological effects of azaspiracid-1. Azaspiracid-1 induced differentiation-related morphological changes followed by a latter cell death. The differentiated phenotype showed peripherin-labelled neurite-like processes simultaneously as a specific isoform of peripherin was down-regulated. The precise mechanism behind this down-regulation remains uncertain. However, this study provides new insights into the neurological effects of azaspiracid-1 and into the biological significance of specific isoforms of peripherin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda V Hjørnevik
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Ann K Frøyset
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Toril A Grønset
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | | | - Kari E Fladmark
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Chevallier OP, Graham SF, Alonso E, Duffy C, Silke J, Campbell K, Botana LM, Elliott CT. New insights into the causes of human illness due to consumption of azaspiracid contaminated shellfish. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9818. [PMID: 25928256 PMCID: PMC4415421 DOI: 10.1038/srep09818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid (AZA) poisoning was unknown until 1995 when shellfish harvested in Ireland caused illness manifesting by vomiting and diarrhoea. Further in vivo/vitro studies showed neurotoxicity linked with AZA exposure. However, the biological target of the toxin which will help explain such potent neurological activity is still unknown. A region of Irish coastline was selected and shellfish were sampled and tested for AZA using mass spectrometry. An outbreak was identified in 2010 and samples collected before and after the contamination episode were compared for their metabolite profile using high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty eight ions were identified at higher concentration in the contaminated samples. Stringent bioinformatic analysis revealed putative identifications for seven compounds including, glutarylcarnitine, a glutaric acid metabolite. Glutaric acid, the parent compound linked with human neurological manifestations was subjected to toxicological investigations but was found to have no specific effect on the sodium channel (as was the case with AZA). However in combination, glutaric acid (1mM) and azaspiracid (50nM) inhibited the activity of the sodium channel by over 50%. Glutaric acid was subsequently detected in all shellfish employed in the study. For the first time a viable mechanism for how AZA manifests itself as a toxin is presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O P Chevallier
- Advanced Asset Technology Centre, Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK
| | - S F Graham
- Beaumont Research Institute, 3811 W Thirteen Mile Road, Royal Oak, MI, 48073
| | - E Alonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, Campus Lugo, USC, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - C Duffy
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - J Silke
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - K Campbell
- Advanced Asset Technology Centre, Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK
| | - L M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, Campus Lugo, USC, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - C T Elliott
- Advanced Asset Technology Centre, Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
|
39
|
O'Driscoll D, Škrabáková Z, James KJ. Confirmation of extensive natural distribution of azaspiracids in the tissue compartments of mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2014; 92:123-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
40
|
Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. In vitro chronic effects on hERG channel caused by the marine biotoxin azaspiracid-2. Toxicon 2014; 91:69-75. [PMID: 25286396 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum that accumulate in many shellfish species. Azaspiracid poisoning caused by AZA-contaminated seafood consumption is primarily manifested by diarrhea in humans. To protect human health, AZA-1, AZA-2 and AZA-3 content in seafood has been regulated by food safety authorities in many countries. Recently AZAs have been reported as a low/moderate hERG channel blockers. Furthermore AZA-2 has been related to arrhythmia appearance in rats, suggesting potential heart toxicity. In this study AZA-2 in vitro effects on hERG channel after chronic exposure are analyzed to further explore potential cardiotoxicity. The amount of hERG channel in the plasma membrane, hERG channel trafficking and hERG currents were evaluated up to 12 h of toxin exposure. In these conditions AZA-2 caused an increase of hERG levels in the plasma membrane, probably related to hERG retrograde trafficking impairment. Although this alteration did not translate into an increase of hERG channel-related current, more studies will be necessary to understand its mechanism and to know what consequences could have in vivo. These findings suggest that azaspiracids might have chronic cardiotoxicity related to hERG channel trafficking and they should not be overlooked when evaluating the threat to human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara F Ferreiro
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael O Frederick
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Nulty C, Crain S, Quilliam MA, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Epimers of azaspiracids: Isolation, structural elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of 37-epi-azaspiracid-1. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:587-600. [PMID: 24506502 DOI: 10.1021/tx400434b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) was identified in 1998, the number of AZA analogues has increased to over 30. The development of an LC-MS method using a neutral mobile phase led to the discovery of isomers of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3, present at ~2-16% of the parent analogues in phytoplankton and shellfish samples. Under acidic mobile phase conditions, isomers and their parents are not separated. Stability studies showed that these isomers were spontaneous epimerization products whose formation is accelerated with the application of heat. The AZA1 isomer was isolated from contaminated shellfish and identified as 37-epi-AZA1 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and chemical analyses. Similar analysis indicated that the isomers of AZA2 and AZA3 corresponded to 37-epi-AZA2 and 37-epi-AZA3, respectively. The 37-epimers were found to exist in equilibrium with the parent compounds in solution. 37-epi-AZA1 was quantitated by NMR, and relative molar response studies were performed to determine the potential differences in LC-MS response of AZA1 and 37-epi-AZA1. Toxicological effects were determined using Jurkat T lymphocyte cells as an in vitro cell model. Cytotoxicity experiments employing a metabolically based dye (i.e., MTS) indicated that 37-epi-AZA1 elicited a lethal response that was both concentration- and time-dependent, with EC50 values in the subnanomolar range. On the basis of EC50 comparisons, 37-epi-AZA1 was 5.1-fold more potent than AZA1. This data suggests that the presence of these epimers in seafood products should be considered in the analysis of AZAs for regulatory purposes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County, Galway, Ireland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Louzao MC, Santamarina G, Cantalapiedra AG, Rodríguez LP, Cifuentes JM, Vieira AC, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. In vivo arrhythmogenicity of the marine biotoxin azaspiracid-2 in rats. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:425-34. [PMID: 23934164 PMCID: PMC3946725 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1115-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum that accumulate in several shellfish species. Azaspiracid poisoning episodes have been described in humans due to ingestion of AZA-contaminated seafood. Therefore, the contents of AZA-1, AZA-2 and AZA-3, the best-known analogs of the group, in shellfish destined to human consumption have been regulated by food safety authorities of many countries to protect human health. In vivo and in vitro toxicological studies have described effects of AZAs at different cellular levels and on several organs, however, AZA target remains unknown. Very recently, AZAs have been demonstrated to block the hERG cardiac potassium channel. In this study, we explored the potential cardiotoxicity of AZA-2 in vivo. The effects of AZA-2 on rat electrocardiogram (ECG) and cardiac biomarkers were evaluated for cardiotoxicity signs besides corroborating the hERG-blocking activity of AZA-2. Our results demonstrated that AZA-2 does not induce QT interval prolongation on rat ECGs in vivo, in spite of being an in vitro blocker of the hERG cardiac potassium channel. However, AZA-2 alters the heart electrical activity causing prolongation of PR intervals and the appearance of arrhythmias. More studies will be needed to clarify the mechanism by which AZA-2 causes these ECG alterations; however, the potential cardiotoxicity of AZAs demonstrated in this in vivo study should be taken into consideration when evaluating the possible threat that these toxins pose to human health, mainly for individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular disease when regulated toxin limits are exceeded.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara F. Ferreiro
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - M. Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Germán Santamarina
- Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Antonio G. Cantalapiedra
- Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Laura P. Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - J. Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Andrés C. Vieira
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - K. C. Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Michael O. Frederick
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Nicolas J, Hendriksen PJM, Gerssen A, Bovee TFH, Rietjens IMCM. Marine neurotoxins: State of the art, bottlenecks, and perspectives for mode of action based methods of detection in seafood. Mol Nutr Food Res 2013; 58:87-100. [DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201300520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Nicolas
- Division of Toxicology; Wageningen University; Wageningen The Netherlands
- RIKILT; Institute of Food Safety; Wageningen The Netherlands
| | | | - Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT; Institute of Food Safety; Wageningen The Netherlands
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Bellassoued K, Makni-Ayadi F, Van Pelt J, Elfeki A. Hepatotoxicity in rats induced by the poisonous dreamfish (Sarpa salpa). Toxicol Mech Methods 2013; 24:151-60. [PMID: 24274667 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2013.869781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The present study was aimed to assess the cytotoxic effects of not-yet identified compounds present in organ extracts of Sarpa salpa, collected in autumn, the period with a peak in health problems. METHODS The toxicity was assessed by mouse bioassay of extract of the fish's organs. Wistar rats received daily extracts of different organs of S. salpa by gastric gavage for 7 d (0.3 ml of extract/100 g body weight, BW). The dose of tissue extracts of viscera, liver, brain and flesh of S. salpa administered to rats were as follows: 17.2, 31.3, 205, 266 mg/100g BW, respectively. No deaths occurred during the period of treatment. RESULTS The lethal dose (LD50%) determined for the crude ciguatoxin (neurotoxins) extracts of viscera, liver, brain and flesh of S. salpa were as follows: 1.2, 2.2, 14.4, 18.6 g/kg mouse, respectively. Changes in locomotor activity during the first 2 h and failure breathing and no evident signs of gastrointestinal problems were recorded. We observed: (1) Induction of oxidative stress, indicated by an increase in lipid peroxidation (TBARS) in groups that received extracts of liver (+490%) or viscera (+592%). Accompanied by a significant decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx) in liver tissue by 15%, 17%, 18% (LT: animals receiving liver extracts) and by 19%, 22%, 22% (VT: animals receiving viscera extracts), respectively. In contrast the administration of extracts of flesh and brain induced an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx) in liver tissue by 15%, 19%, 15% (FT: flesh extract) and 18%, 55%, 55% (BT: brain extract), respectively; (2) A significant increase in total metallothionein levels in liver tissue was recorded in (FT), (BT), (LT) and (VT) by 55%, 88%, 255% and 277%, respectively, (3) The histological findings confirmed the biochemical results. CONCLUSIONS Liver and especially visceral part of S. salpa presented toxicity, which clearly indicates the danger of using this fish as food.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Bellassoued
- Animal Ecophysiology Laboratory, Department of Life Sciences, Sciences Faculty of Sfax , Sfax , Tunisia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Munday R, Reeve J. Risk assessment of shellfish toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2109-37. [PMID: 24226039 PMCID: PMC3847717 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5112109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex secondary metabolites, some of which are highly toxic to mammals, are produced by many marine organisms. Some of these organisms are important food sources for marine animals and, when ingested, the toxins that they produce may be absorbed and stored in the tissues of the predators, which then become toxic to animals higher up the food chain. This is a particular problem with shellfish, and many cases of poisoning are reported in shellfish consumers each year. At present, there is no practicable means of preventing uptake of the toxins by shellfish or of removing them after harvesting. Assessment of the risk posed by such toxins is therefore required in order to determine levels that are unlikely to cause adverse effects in humans and to permit the establishment of regulatory limits in shellfish for human consumption. In the present review, the basic principles of risk assessment are described, and the progress made toward robust risk assessment of seafood toxins is discussed. While good progress has been made, it is clear that further toxicological studies are required before this goal is fully achieved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rex Munday
- AgResearch Ltd, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +64-7-838-5138; Fax: +64-7-838-5012
| | - John Reeve
- Ministry of Primary Industries, PO Box 2526, Wellington, New Zealand; E-Mail:
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Rodríguez LP, Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Dickerson TJ, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. Microsphere-based immunoassay for the detection of azaspiracids. Anal Biochem 2013; 447:58-63. [PMID: 24215909 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2013.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of lipophilic toxins discovered in mussels from Ireland in 1995 following a human poisoning incident. Nowadays the regulatory limit for AZAs in many countries is set at 160 μg of azaspiracid equivalents per kilogram of shellfish meat. In this work a microsphere-based immunoassay has been developed for the detection of AZAs using a Luminex system. This method is based on the competition between AZA-2 immobilized onto the surface of microspheres and free AZAs for the interaction with a monoclonal anti-azaspiracid antibody (mAb 8F4). In this inhibition immunoassay the amount of mAb 8F4 bound to AZA-2 microspheres was quantified using a phycoerythrin-labeled anti-mouse antibody, and the fluorescence was measured with a Luminex analyzer. Simple acetate/methanol or methanol extractions yielded final extracts with no matrix interferences and adequate recovery rates of 86.5 and 75.8%, respectively. In summary, this work presents a sensitive and easily performed screening method capable of detecting AZAs at concentrations below the range of the European regulatory limit using a microsphere/flow cytometry system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura P Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Tobin J Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Worm Institute for Research and Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Department of Chemistry, BioScience Research Collaborative, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Michael O Frederick
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Repeated oral co-exposure to yessotoxin and okadaic acid: a short term toxicity study in mice. Toxicon 2013; 76:94-102. [PMID: 24060376 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The polyethers yessotoxin (YTX) and okadaic acid (OA) are two marine algal toxins frequently associated as edible shellfish contaminants. Seafood contamination by these compounds, also at low concentrations and for a long period of time, can increase the possibility of their simultaneous and repeated ingestion, with possible synergistic toxic effects. Thus, in vivo toxicity by repeated oral exposure to a combination of fixed doses of YTX and OA (1 mg YTX/kg and 0.185 mg OA/kg, daily for 7 days) was investigated in mice, in comparison to that of each toxin alone. No mortality, signs of toxicity, diarrhea or hematological changes was induced by the toxins co-administration or by the single toxins. Light microscopy revealed changes at gastric level (multifocal subacute inflammation, erosions and epithelial hyperplasia) in 2/5 mice co-administered with the toxins. In animals dosed only with OA, epithelial hyperplasia of forestomach and slight focal subacute inflammation of its submucosa were noted. No changes were induced by the treatment with YTX. Ultrastructural analysis of the heart revealed some cardiomyocytes with "loose packing" of myofibrils and aggregated rounded mitochondria in mice co-administered with the toxins or with YTX; OA-treated mice showed only occasional mitochondrial assemblage and dilated sarcomeres. Thus, the combined oral doses of YTX (1 mg/kg/day) and OA (0.185 mg/kg/day) did not exert cumulative or additive toxic effects in mice, in comparison to the single toxins.
Collapse
|
48
|
Shen Q, Gong L, Baibado JT, Dong W, Wang Y, Dai Z, Cheung HY. Graphene based pipette tip solid phase extraction of marine toxins in shellfish muscle followed by UPLC-MS/MS analysis. Talanta 2013; 116:770-5. [PMID: 24148472 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2013] [Revised: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Graphene is a novel carbonic material with great potentials for the use as sorbent due to its ultrahigh surface area. Herein, we report the use of graphene as sorbent in solid-phase extraction (SPE) using pipette tip as cartridge namely GPT-SPE, together with ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), for the analysis of lipophilic marine toxins (LMTs), including yessotoxins (YTX), okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), gymnodimine (GYM), spirolides-1 (SPX1), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) and azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) in shellfish. The GPT-SPE procedure was optimized and the performance of graphene was fully validated. Results with high-sensitivity and good reproducibility was obtained and compared with that of other sorbents like C18 silica, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), commercial Oasis HLB, and Strata-X for the extraction of LMTs, which showed superiority and advantages of graphene, such as good recoveries, stability and compatibility with various solvents. In order to exhibit the potentials of graphene as an excellent sorbent material, 67 mussel samples from six coastal cities of China were analyzed. OA was found to be the dominant contaminant, while YTX was also detected with low level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Shen
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Sala GL, Bellocci M, Callegari F, Rossini GP. Azaspiracid-1 Inhibits the Maturation of Cathepsin D in Mammalian Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2013; 26:444-55. [DOI: 10.1021/tx300511z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gian Luca Sala
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| | | | - Federica Callegari
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| | - Gian Paolo Rossini
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Twiner MJ, Doucette GJ, Rasky A, Huang XP, Roth BL, Sanguinetti MC. Marine algal toxin azaspiracid is an open-state blocker of hERG potassium channels. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:1975-84. [PMID: 22856456 DOI: 10.1021/tx300283t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are polyether marine dinoflagellate toxins that accumulate in shellfish and represent an emerging human health risk. Although human exposure is primarily manifested by severe and protracted diarrhea, this toxin class has been shown to be highly cytotoxic, a teratogen to developing fish, and a possible carcinogen in mice. Until now, AZA's molecular target has not yet been determined. Using three independent methods (voltage clamp, channel binding assay, and thallium flux assay), we have for the first time demonstrated that AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 each bind to and block the hERG (human ether-à-go-go related gene) potassium channel heterologously expressed in HEK-293 mammalian cells. Inhibition of K(+) current for each AZA analogue was concentration-dependent (IC(50) value range: 0.64-0.84 μM). The mechanism of hERG channel inhibition by AZA1 was investigated further in Xenopus oocytes where it was shown to be an open-state-dependent blocker and, using mutant channels, to interact with F656 but not with Y652 within the S6 transmembrane domain that forms the channel's central pore. AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 were each shown to inhibit [(3)H]dofetilide binding to the hERG channel and thallium ion flux through the channel (IC(50) value range: 2.1-6.6 μM). AZA1 did not block the K(+) current of the closely related EAG1 channel. Collectively, these data suggest that the AZAs physically block the K(+) conductance pathway of hERG1 channels by occluding the cytoplasmic mouth of the open pore. Although the concentrations necessary to block hERG channels are relatively high, AZA-induced blockage may prove to contribute to the toxicological properties of the AZAs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|