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Abstract
Superinfection, the sequential infection of a single cell by two or more virions, plays an important role in determining the replicative and evolutionary potential of influenza A virus (IAV) populations. The specific mechanisms that regulate superinfection during natural infection remain poorly understood. Here, we show that superinfection susceptibility is determined by the total number of viral genes expressed within a cell and is independent of their specific identity. Virions that express a complete set of viral genes potently inhibit superinfection, while the semi-infectious particles (SIPs) that make up the bulk of IAV populations and express incomplete subsets of viral genes do not. As a result, viral populations with more SIPs undergo more-frequent superinfection. These findings identify both the primary determinant of IAV superinfection potential and a prominent role for SIPs in promoting coinfection. Defining the specific factors that govern the evolution and transmission of influenza A virus (IAV) populations is of critical importance for designing more-effective prediction and control strategies. Superinfection, the sequential infection of a single cell by two or more virions, plays an important role in determining the replicative and evolutionary potential of IAV populations. The prevalence of superinfection during natural infection and the specific mechanisms that regulate it remain poorly understood. Here, we used a novel single virion infection approach to directly assess the effects of individual IAV genes on superinfection efficiency. Rather than implicating a specific viral gene, this approach revealed that superinfection susceptibility is determined by the total number of viral gene segments expressed within a cell. IAV particles that express a complete set of viral genes potently inhibit superinfection, while semi-infectious particles (SIPs) that express incomplete subsets of viral genes do not. As a result, virus populations that contain more SIPs undergo more-frequent superinfection. We further demonstrate that viral replicase activity is responsible for inhibiting subsequent infection. These findings identify both a major determinant of IAV superinfection potential and a prominent role for SIPs in promoting viral coinfection.
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2
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Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) continues to pose an enormous and unpredictable global public health threat, largely due to the continual evolution of escape from preexisting immunity and the potential for zoonotic emergence. Understanding how the unique genetic makeup and structure of IAV populations influences their transmission and evolution is essential for developing more-effective vaccines, therapeutics, and surveillance capabilities. Owing to their mutation-prone replicase and unique genome organization, IAV populations exhibit enormous amounts of diversity both in terms of sequence and functional gene content. Here, I review what is currently known about the genetic and genomic diversity present within IAV populations and how this diversity may shape the replicative and evolutionary dynamics of these viruses.
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Fonville JM, Marshall N, Tao H, Steel J, Lowen AC. Influenza Virus Reassortment Is Enhanced by Semi-infectious Particles but Can Be Suppressed by Defective Interfering Particles. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005204. [PMID: 26440404 PMCID: PMC4595279 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
A high particle to infectivity ratio is a feature common to many RNA viruses, with ~90-99% of particles unable to initiate a productive infection under low multiplicity conditions. A recent publication by Brooke et al. revealed that, for influenza A virus (IAV), a proportion of these seemingly non-infectious particles are in fact semi-infectious. Semi-infectious (SI) particles deliver an incomplete set of viral genes to the cell, and therefore cannot support a full cycle of replication unless complemented through co-infection. In addition to SI particles, IAV populations often contain defective-interfering (DI) particles, which actively interfere with production of infectious progeny. With the aim of understanding the significance to viral evolution of these incomplete particles, we tested the hypothesis that SI and DI particles promote diversification through reassortment. Our approach combined computational simulations with experimental determination of infection, co-infection and reassortment levels following co-inoculation of cultured cells with two distinct influenza A/Panama/2007/99 (H3N2)-based viruses. Computational results predicted enhanced reassortment at a given % infection or multiplicity of infection with increasing semi-infectious particle content. Comparison of experimental data to the model indicated that the likelihood that a given segment is missing varies among the segments and that most particles fail to deliver ≥1 segment. To verify the prediction that SI particles augment reassortment, we performed co-infections using viruses exposed to low dose UV. As expected, the introduction of semi-infectious particles with UV-induced lesions enhanced reassortment. In contrast to SI particles, inclusion of DI particles in modeled virus populations could not account for observed reassortment outcomes. DI particles were furthermore found experimentally to suppress detectable reassortment, relative to that seen with standard virus stocks, most likely by interfering with production of infectious progeny from co-infected cells. These data indicate that semi-infectious particles increase the rate of reassortment and may therefore accelerate adaptive evolution of IAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith M. Fonville
- Center for Pathogen Evolution, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Nicolle Marshall
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Hui Tao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - John Steel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Anice C. Lowen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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4
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Abstract
Only a small fraction of influenza A virus (IAV) particles within a viral population register as infectious by traditional infectivity assays. Despite constituting the most abundant product of influenza infection, the role that the 'noninfectious' particle fraction plays in the biology of the virus has largely been ignored. This review shines a light on this oft-ignored population by highlighting studies, both old and new, that describe the unique biological activities of these particles, and discussing what this population can tell us about the biology of IAV evolution and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Brooke
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
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5
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Hutchinson EC, von Kirchbach JC, Gog JR, Digard P. Genome packaging in influenza A virus. J Gen Virol 2009; 91:313-28. [PMID: 19955561 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.017608-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The negative-sense RNA genome of influenza A virus is composed of eight segments, which encode 12 proteins between them. At the final stage of viral assembly, these genomic virion (v)RNAs are incorporated into the virion as it buds from the apical plasma membrane of the cell. Genome segmentation confers evolutionary advantages on the virus, but also poses a problem during virion assembly as at least one copy of each of the eight segments is required to produce a fully infectious virus particle. Historically, arguments have been presented in favour of a specific packaging mechanism that ensures incorporation of a full genome complement, as well as for an alternative model in which segments are chosen at random but packaged in sufficient numbers to ensure that a reasonable proportion of virions are viable. The question has seen a resurgence of interest in recent years leading to a consensus that the vast majority of virions contain no more than eight segments and that a specific mechanism does indeed function to select one copy of each vRNA. This review summarizes work leading to this conclusion. In addition, we describe recent progress in identifying the specific packaging signals and discuss likely mechanisms by which these RNA elements might operate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C Hutchinson
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
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6
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Figlerowicz M, Alejska M, Kurzyńska‐Kokorniak A, Figlerowicz M. Genetic variability: the key problem in the prevention and therapy of RNA-based virus infections. Med Res Rev 2003; 23:488-518. [PMID: 12710021 PMCID: PMC7168509 DOI: 10.1002/med.10045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite extraordinary progress that has recently been made in biomedical sciences, viral infectious diseases still remain one of the most serious world health problems. Among the different types of viruses, those using RNA as their genetic material (RNA viruses and retroviruses) are especially dangerous. At present there is no medicine allowing an effective treatment of RNA-based virus infections. Many RNA viruses and retroviruses need only a few weeks to escape immune response or to produce drug-resistant mutants. This seems to be the obvious consequence of the unusual genetic variability of RNA-based viruses. An individual virus does not form a homogenous population but rather a set of similar but not identical variants. In consequence, RNA-based viruses can easily adapt to environmental changes, also those resulting from immune system response or therapy. The modifications identified within viral genes can be divided into two groups: point mutations and complex genome rearrangements. The former arises mainly during error-prone replication, whereas RNA recombination and generic reassortment are responsible for the latter. This article shortly describes major strategies used to control virus infections. Then, it presents the various mechanisms generating the genetic diversity of RNA-based viruses, which are most probably the main cause of clinical problems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Magdalena Alejska
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61‐704 Poznań, Poland
| | - Anna Kurzyńska‐Kokorniak
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61‐704 Poznań, Poland
| | - Marek Figlerowicz
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61‐704 Poznań, Poland
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7
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Murti KG, Brown PS, Bean WJ, Webster RG. Composition of the helical internal components of influenza virus as revealed by immunogold labeling/electron microscopy. Virology 1992; 186:294-9. [PMID: 1727605 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(92)90084-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The composition of the large helical internal components of influenza virus was investigated by immunogold labeling/electron microscopy with antibodies to the nucleoprotein (NP), matrix protein (M), and polymerase complex (PB1, PB2, and PA) of the virus. The morphologically intact helices, obtained by air-drying of the virions on the electron microscope grid, showed little or no labeling with any of the above antibodies. However, partial to full degradation of the helix by proteinase K (2 ng/ml) prior to immunogold labeling made the helices accessible to all three antibodies. The results are consistent with a model that the helix represents a polymer of M protein enclosing or containing the influenza ribonucleoprotein(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- K G Murti
- Department of Virology and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38101-0318
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8
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Abstract
The packaging mechanism of segmented RNA viruses has not been well studied. Specifically, it has not been clear whether influenza A viruses package only eight RNA segments or whether virus particles contain more than eight segments. Using a newly developed ribonucleoprotein (RNP) transfection method, we engineered an influenza virus which must contain nine different RNA segments rather than the usual eight in order to survive under the experimental growth conditions. This result is compatible with a mechanism of packaging which allows influenza virus to encapsidate more than eight RNA segments. We also suggest that the virus packages its RNAs randomly and that this random packaging results in infectious viruses with the required ("right") complement of RNA segments.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Enami
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029
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9
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Takemori N, Cladaras C, Bhat B, Conley AJ, Wold WS. cyt gene of adenoviruses 2 and 5 is an oncogene for transforming function in early region E1B and encodes the E1B 19,000-molecular-weight polypeptide. J Virol 1984; 52:793-805. [PMID: 6492262 PMCID: PMC254598 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.52.3.793-805.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
A total of 59 cytocidal (cyt) mutants were isolated from adenovirus 2 (Ad2) and Ad5. In contrast to the small plaques and adenovirus type of cytopathic effects produced by wild-type cyt+ viruses, the cyt mutants produced large plaques, and the cytopathic effect was characterized by marked cellular destruction. cyt mutants were transformation defective in established rat 3Y1 cells. cyt+ revertants and cyt+ intragenic recombinants recovered fully the transforming ability of wild-type viruses. Thus, the cyt gene is an oncogene responsible for the transforming function of Ad2 and Ad5. Genetic mapping in which we used three Ad5 deletion mutants (dl312, dl313, and dl314) as reference deletions located the cyt gene between the 3' ends of the dl314 deletion (nucleotide 1,679) and the dl313 deletion (nucleotide 3,625) in region E1B. Restriction endonuclease mapping of these recombinants suggested that the cyt gene encodes the region E1B 19,000-molecular-weight (175R) polypeptide (nucleotides 1,711 to 2,236). This was confirmed by DNA sequencing of eight different cyt mutants. One of these mutants has a single missense mutant, two mutants have double missense mutations, and five mutants have nonsense mutations. Except for one mutant, these point mutations are not located in any other known region E1B gene. We conclude that the cyt gene codes for the E1B 19,000-molecular-weight (175R) polypeptide, that this polypeptide is required for morphological transformation of rat 3Y1 cells, and that simple amino acid substitutions in the protein can be sufficient to produce the cyt phenotype.
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Scholtissek C, Spring SB. Extragenic suppression of temperature-sensitive mutations in RNA segment 8 by replacement of different rna segments with those of other influenza A virus prototype strains. Virology 1982; 118:28-34. [PMID: 6952653 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(82)90316-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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11
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Carter MJ, Mahy BW. Incomplete avian influenza virus contains a defective non-interfering component. Arch Virol 1982; 71:13-25. [PMID: 7065901 DOI: 10.1007/bf01315172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Incomplete avian influenza (fowl plague) virus derived by undiluted egg passage, displayed an increased capacity to promote the synthesis of intracellular virus-specific proteins when compared with standard virus. The in vitro virion-bound RNA polymerase activity of incomplete virus was also greater than could be explained by the presence of residual infectious virus. When the titres of infectious and interfering virus species were determined directly, they did not account for all the virus present. The existence of defective non-interfering (DNI) virus, even in standard virus preparations, was inferred. DNI virus is capable of initiating infection, synthesis of mRNA and proteins but cannot complete a productive replication cycle, and does not interfere with multiplication of standard virus. Such DNI virus could exaggerate the true extent of DI virus formation by lowering the PFU:HAU ratio and so account for the failure to correlate infectivity with RNA composition or RNA polymerase activity.
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12
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Massicot JG, Van Wyke K, Chanock RM, Murphy BR. Evidence for intrasegmental complementation between two influenza A viruses having ts mutations on their P1 genes. Virology 1982; 117:496-500. [PMID: 7064357 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(82)90488-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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13
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Shimizu K, Mullinix MG, Chanock RM, Murphy BR. Temperature-sensitive mutants of influenza A/Udorn/72 (H3N2) virus. II. Genetic analysis and demonstration of intrasegmental complementation. Virology 1982; 117:45-61. [PMID: 7064354 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(82)90506-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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14
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Thierry F, Spring SB. Localization of the ts defects of ts mutants of influenza A virus using complementation analysis and gel analysis of the RNA segments of recombinants. Virology 1981; 115:137-48. [PMID: 7292987 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(81)90096-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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15
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Koennecke I, Boschek CB, Scholtissek C. Isolation and properties of a temperature-sensitive mutant (ts 412) of an influenza A virus recombinant with a ts lesion in the gene coding for the nonstructural protein. Virology 1981; 110:16-25. [PMID: 7210502 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(81)90003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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16
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Almond JW, McGeoch D, Barry RD. Temperature-sensitive mutants of fowl plague virus: isolation and genetic characterization. Virology 1979; 92:416-27. [PMID: 425322 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(79)90146-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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17
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18
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Scholtissek C, Rohde W, Harms E, Rott R, Orlich M, Boschek CB. A possible partial heterozygote of an influenza A virus. Virology 1978; 89:506-16. [PMID: 716216 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(78)90192-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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20
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21
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Almond JW, McGeoch D, Barry RD. Method for assigning temperature-sensitive mutations of influenza viruses to individual segments of the genome. Virology 1977; 81:62-73. [PMID: 560753 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(77)90058-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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22
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Nakajima K, Sugiura A. Isolation of an influenza virus temperature-sensitive mutant of a new recombination-complementation group. Virology 1977; 78:365-74. [PMID: 867809 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(77)90114-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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23
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Ritchey MB, Palese P. Identification of the defective genes in three mutant groups of influenza virus. J Virol 1977; 21:1196-204. [PMID: 850307 PMCID: PMC515660 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.21.3.1196-1204.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven complementation-recombination groups of temperature-sensitive (ts) influenza WSN virus mutants have been previously isolated. Recently two of these groups (IV and VI) were shown to possess defects in the neuraminidase and the hemagglutinin gene, respectively, and two groups (I and III) were reported to have defects in the P3 and P1 proteins which are required for complementary RNA synthesis. In this communication we report on the defects in the remaining three mutant groups. Wild-type (ts+) recombinants derived from ts mutants and different non-ts influenza viruses were analyzed on RNA polyacrylamide gels. This technique permitted the identification of the P2 protein, the nucleoprotein, and the M protein as the defective gene products in mutant groups II, V, and VII, respectively. Based on the physiological behavior of mutants in groups II and V, it appears that P2 protein and nucleoprotein are required for virion RNA synthesis during influenza virus replication.
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24
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Spring SB, Maassab HF, Kendal AP, Murphy BR, Chanock RM. Cold-adapted variants of influenza virus A. I. Comparison of the genetic properties of ts mutants and five cold-adapted variants of influenza virus A. Virology 1977; 77:337-43. [PMID: 841864 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(77)90430-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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25
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26
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Inglis SC, Carroll AR, Lamb RA, Mahy BW. Polypeptides specified by the influenza virus genome I. Evidence for eight distinct gene products specified by fowl plague virus. Virology 1976; 74:489-503. [PMID: 982839 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(76)90355-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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27
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Scholtissek C, Harms E, Rohde W, Orlich M, Rott R. Correlation between RNA fragments of fowl plague virus and their corresponding gene functions. Virology 1976; 74:332-44. [PMID: 982830 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(76)90340-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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28
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Rochovansky OM, Hirst GK. Infectivity and marker rescue activity of influenza virus ribonucleoprotein-polymerase complexes. Virology 1976; 73:339-49. [PMID: 960568 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(76)90395-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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29
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McGeoch D, Fellner P, Newton C. Influenza virus genome consists of eight distinct RNA species. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1976; 73:3045-9. [PMID: 1067600 PMCID: PMC430922 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.73.9.3045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The genomic RNA of the avian influenza A virus, fowl plague, was fractionated into eight species by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide-agarose gels containing 6 M urea. The separated 32P-labeled RNA species were characterized by digestion with RNase T1 and fractionation of the resulting oligonucleotides by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis; this demonstrated that each species has a distinct nucleotide sequence. A tentative correlation of each genome RNA species with the virus protein that it encodes was made.
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30
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Murphy BR, Richman DD, Spring SB, Chanock RM. Use of temperature-sensitive mutants of influenza A virus as live virus vaccine strains. Evaluation in laboratory animals, adults and children. Postgrad Med J 1976; 52:381-8. [PMID: 785430 PMCID: PMC2496312 DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.52.608.381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Temperature-sensitive (ts) recombinants of influenza A virus were evaluated for use in a live virus vaccine. Evidence from several sources suggested that the ts lesions were responsible for attenuation of these mutants. Specification of attenuation by defined genetic lesions which can be assayed for in the laboratory offers an advantage to the use of ts viruses for vaccination. This means that ts recombinants can be assessed for genetic stability during vaccine development, production and later during usage in man. One ts virus, influenza A/Hong Kong/68-ts-1[E], with a 38°C shut-off temperature, had the following properties desirable for a live virus vaccine: (1) satisfactory infectivity for seronegative (serum HI antibody titre ≤ 1:8) adults; (2) satisfactory attenuation for adults; (3) capacity to stimulate local and serum anti-haemagglutinin and anti-neuraminidase antibodies in seronegative volunteers; (4) stimulation of resistance to virulent, wild type virus; (5) relative genetic stability in vivo; (6) lack of communicability in man; (7) replication to high titre in avian leucosis virus-free eggs; and (8) localization of ts lesions to genes that do not code for the haemagglutinin and neuraminidase. The ts lesions of influenza A/Hong Kong/68-ts-1[E] virus were transferred to more current viruses within the H3N2 subtype (influenza A/Udorn/307/72 and influenza A/Georgia/101/74). These recombinant Udorn/72 and Georgia/74 ts viruses, which possessed the same shut-off temperature and the same ts lesions as the influenza A/Hong Kong/68-ts-1[E] parent virus, exhibited a pattern of infection and attenuation in hamsters and man similar to their ts parent. These data suggest that ts mutants which are sufficiently attenuated for man, could serve as donors of ts lesions for the rapid production of an attenuated vaccine when new antigenic variants arise. When the influenza A/Hong Kong/68-ts-1[E] virus was administered to children who lacked both anti-haemagglutinin and anti-neuraminidase antibody the virus replicated for a longer period than in adults and mild fever developed in some of the young vaccinees. A minority of children shed wild type revertant virus. The emergence of wild type virus in children, but not in adults, probably reflected the more extensive replication of the virus in the doubly seronegative children. The implications of these findings to the development and testing of live influenza A virus vaccines were discussed.
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31
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Spandidos DA, Graham AF. Infectious center assay for complementation and recombination between mutant of reovirus. J Virol 1976; 18:1151-4. [PMID: 1271531 PMCID: PMC354817 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.18.3.1151-1154.1976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
An infectious center assay has been developed to measure recombination and complementation in L cells mixedly infected with ts mutants of reovirus. The mutants studied so far fall into complementation groups that correspond to the recombination groups previously defined by other laboratories (B. N. Fields, 1971; B. N. Filds and W. K. Joklik, 1969).
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32
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Spandidos DA, Graham AF. Recombination between temperature-sensitive and deletion mutants of reovirus. J Virol 1976; 18:117-23. [PMID: 1255867 PMCID: PMC515529 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.18.1.117-123.1976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In standard pairwise crosses there was no detectable recombination between defective reovirus lacking the largest genomic segment and prototypes of the seven known classes of ts mutants. However, in such crosses between R2A (201) and the various prototypes frequencies of ts+ recombinants between 2.6 and 6.1% were observed, as others have found (Fields, 1971; Fields and Joklik, 1969). An infectious center assay was devised to measure recombination in this system, and it was found that all mixedly infected cells gave rise to ts+ recombinants in crosses between prototype ts mutants, but no recombination was detectable when the defective virus was crossed with three different ts mutants. The ts mutation of mutant R2A (201) was efficiently rescued when crossed with UV-inactivated wild-type virus but not when crossed with UV-inactivated defective virus. It is concluded from these various experiments that if there is any recombination between these defective reovirions and any known class of ts mutants it is too low to be measured by methods presently available. The kinetics of recombination were measured in cells mixedly infected with R2A (201) and R2B (352) mutants. At the earliest time progeny virus could be found in the cells the frequency of ts+ recombinants was 4.5%, and this frequency remained unchanged despite a subsequent 1,000-fold increase in progeny virus.
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Abstract
Eight genome RNA segments are present in both normal and von Magnustype influenza virus preparations and all species are transcribed by the virion-associated polymerase. Although the RNA polymerase activity and the amount of the three largest RNA segments are reduced in defective influenza virus preparations, these reductions do not appear to be great enough to account for the much greater loss of infectivity.
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Roman JM, Simon EH. Morphologic heterogeneity in egg- and monolayer-propagated newcastle disease virus. Virology 1976; 69:287-97. [PMID: 1246823 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(76)90215-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Gregoriades A, Hirst GK. Mechanism of influenza recombination. III. Biochemical studies of temperature-sensitive mutants belonging to different recombination groups. Virology 1976; 69:81-92. [PMID: 1246832 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(76)90196-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Lazarowitz SG, Choppin PW. Enhancement of the infectivity of influenza A and B viruses by proteolytic cleavage of the hemagglutinin polypeptide. Virology 1975; 68:440-54. [PMID: 128196 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(75)90285-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Scholtissek C, Bowles AL. Isolation and characterization of temperature-sensitive mutants of fowl plague virus. Virology 1975; 67:576-87. [PMID: 1189290 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(75)90457-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Chrástová V, Janovská E, Vízdalová M. Genetic studies on temperature-sensitive mutants of Bacillus subtilis bacteriophage SPP 1. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 1975; 20:389-95. [PMID: 811506 DOI: 10.1007/bf02877040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A total of 30 ts mutants of Bacillus subtilis bacteriophage SPP1 were isolated and subjected to complementation test. On the basis of this test 21 mutants were classified into 4 functional groups; the classification of the remaining 9 mutants was unclear. The frequency of recombination by mutual crossing was determined in representatives of individual groups; this made it possible to place these mutants on a linear map comprising a total length of 7.62 recombination units.
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Spring SB, Nusinoff SR, Mills J, Richman DD, Tierney EL, Murphy BR, Chanock RM. Temperature-sensitive mutants of influenza virus. VI. Transfer of TS lesions from the Asian subtype of influenza A virus (H2N2) to the Hong Kong subtype (H3N2). Virology 1975; 66:522-32. [PMID: 1171555 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(75)90224-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Murphy BR, Spring SB, Richman DD, Tierney EL, Kasel J, Chanock RM. Temperature-Sensitive mutants of influenza virus. VII. Transfer of the TS-1[E] lesions to a wild-type influenza A virus with the HON1 surface antigens. Virology 1975; 66:533-41. [PMID: 1171556 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(75)90225-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Sugiura A, Ueda M, Tobita K, Enomoto C. Further isolation and characterization of temperature-sensitive mutants of influenza virus. Virology 1975; 65:363-73. [PMID: 1168970 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(75)90042-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Webster RG, Campbell CH. Studies on the origin of pandemic influenza. IV. Selection and transmission of "new" influenza viruses in vivo. Virology 1974; 62:404-13. [PMID: 4432372 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(74)90402-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Hirst GK, Pons MW. Mechanism of influenza recombination. II. Virus aggregation and its effect on plaque formation by so-called noninfective virus. Virology 1973; 56:620-31. [PMID: 4796550 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(73)90063-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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