The closteroviruses: a distinct group of elongated plant viruses

Gene silencing of cathepsins B and L using CTV-based, plant-mediated RNAi interferes with ovarial development in Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae) is a vector of the bacteria Candidatus Liberibacter americanus (CLam) and Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), which are phloem-restricted and associated with the most important and destructive worldwide citrus disease, Huanglongbing (HLB). Currently, no cure for HLB has been described. Therefore, measures have focused on reducing D. citri populations. In these insects, cathepsin B (DCcathB) and L (DCcathL) enzymes play an important role in digestion, and are involved in embryogenesis, immune defense, and ecdysis. In this study, we used a CTV-based vector to deliver dsRNA (CTV-dsRNA) into Citrus macrophylla plants targeting DCcathB and DCcathL genes in D. citri that fed on the phloem of these CTV-RNAi infected plants. Subsequently, we evaluated expression of DCcathB and DCcathL genes as well as the Vitellogenin (Vg) gene by RT-qPCR in D. citri fed on CTV-dsRNA occurring in plant phloem. It was found that a defective phenotype in D. citri females as a result of knockdown of DCcathB and DCcathL genes mediated by CTV dsRNA. These results showed that Psyllids fed on plants treated with the CTV-dsRNA exhibited downregulation of the Vg gene, one of the most important genes associated with embryogenic and female development, which was associated with dsRNA-mediated silencing of the two cathepsin genes. Based on our findings, a CTV-based strategy for delivering RNAi via plants that targets DCcathB and DCcathL genes may represent a suitable avenue for development of dsRNA-based tools to manage D. citri that limits the spread of HLB.

Discovery and Genome Characterization of a Closterovirus from Wheat Plants with Yellowing Leaf Symptoms in Japan

Many aphid-borne viruses are important pathogens that affect wheat crops worldwide. An aphid-transmitted closterovirus named wheat yellow leaf virus (WYLV) was found to have infected wheat plants in Japan in the 1970s; however, since then, its viral genome sequence and occurrence in the field have not been investigated. We observed yellowing leaves in the 2018/2019 winter wheat-growing season in an experimental field in Japan where WYLV was detected five decades ago. A virome analysis of those yellow leaf samples lead to the discovery of a closterovirus together with a luteovirus (barley yellow dwarf virus PAV variant IIIa). The complete genomic sequence of this closterovirus, named wheat closterovirus 1 isolate WL19a (WhCV1-WL19a), consisted of 15,452 nucleotides harboring nine open reading frames. Additionally, we identified another WhCV1 isolate, WL20, in a wheat sample from the winter wheat-growing season of 2019/2020. A transmission test indicated that WhCV1-WL20 was able to form typical filamentous particles and transmissible by oat bird-cherry aphid (Rhopalosiphum pad). Sequence and phylogenetic analyses showed that WhCV1 was distantly related to members of the genus Closterovirus (family Closteroviridae), suggesting that the virus represents a novel species in the genus. Furthermore, the characterization of WhCV1-WL19a-derived small RNAs using high-throughput sequencing revealed highly abundant 22-nt-class small RNAs potentially derived from the 3′-terminal end of the WhCV1 negative-strand genomic RNA, indicating that this terminal end of the WhCV1 genome is likely particularly targeted for the synthesis of viral small RNAs in wheat plants. Our results provide further knowledge on closterovirus diversity and pathogenicity and suggest that the impact of WhCV1 on wheat production warrants further investigations.

Survey and detection for citrus tristeza virus in Florida groves with an unconventional tool: The Asian citrus psyllid

The citrus industry of Florida faces insurmountable challenges against the destructive diseases citrus tristeza and Huanglongbing (HLB, or citrus greening). Though the tristeza causal agent, citrus tristeza virus (CTV), has been in Florida decades longer than HLB, growers have concentrated most of their efforts on combating the more detrimental HLB. The Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri; ACP) is the insect vector of the bacterial pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus and transmits the incurable HLB to all commercial citrus. During our searches for biological and viral controls against the ACP, we consistently detected sequences of CTV in Florida field populations of ACP. This unexpected finding led us to investigate whether ACPs collected from young shoots could be used as a tool to survey CTV in Florida citrus groves. We first surveyed for the most common CTV strains in Florida (T30, T36, and VT/T68) in citrus trees on mostly sour orange (Citrus aurantium) rootstock, the rootstock susceptible to CTV decline. Out of 968 trees sampled across five years (2018-2022), approximately 8.2% were positive for CTV, with more than half of the CTV-positive trees infected with strain T30. Simultaneously, we looked at CTV strains in ACPs during this time and found that approximately 88% of pooled adult and nymph ACPs also had CTV, with over half the positive samples having the T36 strain. As a result of the much higher CTV incidences in the ACPs, we conducted a second investigation into whether we could more easily detect the same CTV strains in ACP nymphs as in CTV-infected citrus tissue. After individually sampling 43 trees and pooling the nymphs from each tree, we detected CTV at about the same incidence in the citrus tissue and the nymphs, but with much less ACP tissue, time, and resources required for detection compared to citrus tissue. Results from this study illustrate the sustained threat of CTV to Florida citrus and demonstrate the ACP as a potential bioindicator for CTV.

Citrus Tristeza Virus: From Pathogen to Panacea

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is the most destructive viral pathogen of citrus. During the past century, CTV induced grave epidemics in citrus-growing areas worldwide that have resulted in a loss of more than 100 million trees. At present, the virus continues to threaten citrus production in many different countries. Research on CTV is accompanied by distinctive challenges stemming from the large size of its RNA genome, the narrow host range limited to slow-growing Citrus species and relatives, and the complexity of CTV populations. Despite these hurdles, remarkable progress has been made in understanding the CTV-host interactions and in converting the virus into a tool for crop protection and improvement. This review focuses on recent advances that have shed light on the mechanisms underlying CTV infection. Understanding these mechanisms is pivotal for the development of means to control CTV diseases and, ultimately, turn this virus into an ally.

Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 9 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

From the smallest to the largest subcellular plant pathogen: Citrus tristeza virus and its unique p23 protein

Knowledge on diseases caused by Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) has greatly increased in last decades after their etiology was demonstrated in the past seventies. Professor Ricardo Flores substantially contributed to these advances in topics like: i) improvement of virus purification to obtain biologically active virions, ii) sequencing mild CTV isolates for genetic comparisons with sequences of moderate or severe isolates and genetic engineering, iii) analysis of genetic variation of both CTV genomic RNA ends and features of the highly variable 5' end that allow accommodating this variation within a conserved secondary structure, iv) studies on the structure, subcellular localization and biological functions of the CTV-unique p23 protein, and v) potential use of p23 and other 3'-proximal regions of the CTV genome to develop transgenic citrus resistant to the virus. Here we review his main achievements on these topics and how they contributed to deeper understanding of CTV biology and to new potential measures for disease control.

The Intriguing Conundrum of a Nonconserved Multifunctional Protein of Citrus Tristeza Virus That Interacts with a Viral Long Non-Coding RNA

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), the largest non-segmented plant RNA virus, has several peculiar features, among which is the production of a 5'-terminal long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) termed low-molecular-weight tristeza 1 (LMT1). In this study, we found that p33, a unique viral protein that performs multiple functions in the virus infection cycle, specifically binds LMT1, both in vivo and in vitro. These results were obtained through the expression of p33 under the context of the wild type virus infection or along with a mutant CTV variant that does not produce LMT1 as well as via ectopic co-expression of p33 with LMT1 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves followed by RNA immunoprecipitation and rapid amplification of cDNA ends assays. Further experiments in which a recombinant p33 protein and an in vitro transcribed full-length LMT1 RNA or its truncated fragments were subjected to an electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated that p33 binds to at least two distinct regions within LMT1. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a plant virus protein binding to a lncRNA produced by the same virus. The biological significance of the interaction between these two viral factors is discussed.

Development of a real-time RT-PCR method for the detection of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and its implication in studying virus distribution in planta

Tristeza is an economically important disease of the citrus caused by Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) of genus Closterovirus and family Closteroviridae. The disease has caused tremendous losses to citrus industry worldwide by killing millions of trees, reducing the productivity and total production. Enormous efforts have been made in many countries to prevent the viral spread and the losses caused by the disease. To understand the reason behind this scenario, studies on virus distribution and tropism in the citrus plants are needed. Different diagnostic methods are available for early CTV detection but none of them is employed for in planta virus distribution study. In this study, a TaqMan RT-PCR-based method to detect and quantify CTV in different tissues of infected Mosambi plants (Citrus sinensis) has been standardized. The assay was very sensitive with the pathogen detection limit of > 0.0595 fg of in vitro-transcribed CTV-RNA. The assay was implemented for virus distribution study and absolute CTV titer quantification in samples taken from Tristeza-infected trees. The highest virus load was observed in the midribs of the symptomatic leaf (4.1 × 10⁷-1.4 × 10⁸/100 mg) and the lowest in partial dead twigs (1 × 10³-1.7 × 10⁴/100 mg), and shoot tip (2.3 × 10³-4.5 × 10³/100 mg). Interestingly, during the peak summer months, the highest CTV load was observed in the feeder roots (3 × 10⁷-1.1 × 10⁸/100 mg) than in the midribs of symptomatic leaf. The viral titer was highest in symptomatic leaf midrib followed by asymptomatic leaf midrib, feeder roots, twig bark, symptomatic leaf lamella, and asymptomatic leaf lamella. Overall, high CTV titer was primarily observed in the phloem containing tissues and low CTV titer in the other tissues. The information would help in selecting tissues with higher virus titer in disease surveillance that have implication in Tristeza management in citrus.

Preliminary Report on the Acquisition, Persistence, and Potential Transmission of Citrus tristeza virus by Diaphorina citri

Simple Summary

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is the causal agent of one of the most serious diseases of citrus and is described to be vectored by several aphid species. There have been no published reports of either acquisition or transmission of CTV by other insects, including phloem-feeding sternorrhynchans. The Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri is an economically important pest since it is the vector of the bacterium associated with Huanglongbing (HLB) in citrus crops. We hereby reported the detection of CTV from field-collected D. citri and estimated the ability of these insects to acquire and transmit the virus. Under controlled conditions, D. citri nymphs were shown to acquire CTV from citrus trees, and the virus persisted in the psyllids for over 15 days. Controlled experiments also suggest that D. citri transmit CTV to healthy citrus plants but not to orange jasmine plants, a favorite host of D. citri. The results indicate D. citri is a potential vector of pathogens for two major citrus diseases: HLB and Citrus tristeza.

Abstract

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is one of the most important citrus tree viruses: a graft-transmissible virus that can be vectored by several aphid species. Diaphorina citri is the insect vector of “Candidatus Liberibacter spp.”, a bacterium associated with citrus Huanglongbing (HLB). However, no detailed description of the relationship between CTV and D. citri has been reported. In this study, D. citri adults collected from CTV-infected “Shatangju” mandarin, “Newhall” sweet orange, and “fingered citron” trees in different orchards yielded CTV-positive rates of 40%, 65%, and 95%, respectively, upon detection by conventional PCR. Illumina HiSeq sequencing followed by de novo assembly recovered the primary full CTV genome from the RNA of 30 D. citri adults sampled from CTV-positive citrus plants. Molting and adult emergence did not affect the presence or titers of CTV within the D. citri; however, the persistence of CTV in psyllids varied among different host plant species. Groups of 10 D. citri (from a population 85% CTV-positive) were shown to potentially transmit CTV to two citrus species, “Shatangju” mandarin and “Eureka” lemon, yielding 58.33% and 83.33% CTV-positive plants, respectively. No transmission of CTV to orange jasmine plants occurred. Thus, this study reports on the ability of D. citri to acquire and transmit CTV, making D. citri as a vector of two important citrus pathogens, warranting further attention and investigation.

Enhancing Capsid Proteins Capacity in Plant Virus-Vector Interactions and Virus Transmission

Vector transmission of plant viruses is basically of two types that depend on the virus helper component proteins or the capsid proteins. A number of plant viruses belonging to disparate groups have developed unusual capsid proteins providing for interactions with the vector. Thus, cauliflower mosaic virus, a plant pararetrovirus, employs a virion associated p3 protein, the major capsid protein, and a helper component for the semi-persistent transmission by aphids. Benyviruses encode a capsid protein readthrough domain (CP-RTD) located at one end of the rod-like helical particle, which serves for the virus transmission by soil fungal zoospores. Likewise, the CP-RTD, being a minor component of the luteovirus icosahedral virions, provides for persistent, circulative aphid transmission. Closteroviruses encode several CPs and virion-associated proteins that form the filamentous helical particles and mediate transmission by aphid, whitefly, or mealybug vectors. The variable strategies of transmission and evolutionary ‘inventions’ of the unusual capsid proteins of plant RNA viruses are discussed.

Walking Together: Cross-Protection, Genome Conservation, and the Replication Machinery of Citrus tristeza virus

"Cross-protection", a nearly 100 years-old virological term, is suggested to be changed to "close protection". Evidence for the need of such change has accumulated over the past six decades from the laboratory experiments and field tests conducted by plant pathologists and plant virologists working with different plant viruses, and, in particular, from research on Citrus tristeza virus (CTV). A direct confirmation of such close protection came with the finding that "pre-immunization" of citrus plants with the variants of the T36 strain of CTV but not with variants of other virus strains was providing protection against a fluorescent protein-tagged T36-based recombinant virus variant. Under natural conditions close protection is functional and is closely associated both with the conservation of the CTV genome sequence and prevention of superinfection by closely similar isolates. It is suggested that the mechanism is primarily directed to prevent the danger of virus population collapse that could be expected to result through quasispecies divergence of large RNA genomes of the CTV variants continuously replicating within long-living and highly voluminous fruit trees. This review article provides an overview of the CTV cross-protection research, along with a discussion of the phenomenon in the context of the CTV biology and genetics.

Molecular Characterization of the Complete Coding Sequence of Olive Leaf Yellowing-Associated Virus

Genome organization and phylogenetic relationships of olive leaf yellowing-associated virus (OLYaV) with other members of the Closteroviridae family were determined. The complete coding sequence of OLYaV was obtained by high throughput sequencing of total RNA from a 35-year-old olive tree (cv. Zarzaleña) from Brazil, showing olive leaf yellowing disease and deformations in the wood. This represents the first report of OLYaV in this country. A genomic sequence of 16,700 nt containing 11 open reading frames (ORFs) was recovered, representing the complete virus coding capacity. The knowledge of the nucleotide sequence of the genome including the gene that codes the coat protein will facilitate the development of diagnostic tests, which are limited so far to PCR-based methods targeting the HSP70h gene. Interestingly, a thaumatin-like protein (ORF2), previously reported in other unassigned viruses in the Closteroviridae family, persimmon virus B and actidinia virus 1, was identified in the OLYaV genome. Phylogenetic analysis of shared proteins (ORF1a, ORF1b, HSP70h, HSP90h and CP) with all members of the Closteroviridae family provides new insight into the taxonomic position of these three closteroviruses and suggests they could represent a new genus in the family.

A Non-Conserved p33 Protein of Citrus Tristeza Virus Interacts with Multiple Viral Partners

The RNA genome of citrus tristeza virus (CTV), one of the most damaging viral pathogens of citrus, contains 12 open reading frames resulting in production of at least 19 proteins. Previous studies on the intraviral interactome of CTV revealed self-interaction of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, the major coat protein (CP), p20, p23, and p33 proteins, while heterologous interactions between the CTV proteins have not been characterized. In this work, we examined interactions between the p33 protein, a nonconserved protein of CTV, which performs multiple functions in the virus infection cycle and is needed for virus ability to infect the extended host range, with other CTV proteins shown to mediate virus interactions with its plant hosts. Using yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and coimmunoprecipitation assays, we demonstrated that p33 interacts with three viral proteins, i.e., CP, p20, and p23, in vivo and in planta. Coexpression of p33, which is an integral membrane protein, resulted in a shift in the localization of the p20 and p23 proteins toward the subcellular crude-membrane fraction. Upon CTV infection, the four proteins colocalized in the CTV replication factories. In addition, three of them, CP, p20, and p23, were found in the p33-formed membranous structures. Using bioinformatic analyses and mutagenesis, we found that the N-terminus of p33 is involved in the interactions with all three protein partners. A potential role of these interactions in virus ability to infect the extended host range is discussed.

A Short Note on Reflections and Publications on Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) Methodologies

My PhD thesis work of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) purification was aimed to develop a rapid serological assay to replace biological indexing. The task turned difficult and was achieved after a lengthy struggle, rewarded by allowing (1) the rapid diagnosis of the first incidences of natural spread of a severe CTV-VT strain in our region and (2) finding that the CTV particle isolation protocol, with some modifications, was also useful for Beet yellows virus (BYV) particles, leading to their assignment in the Closterovirus group, the first group of elongated plant viruses with different modal lengths. Later, following the introduction of ELISA for large-scale diagnosis of tristeza-infected citrus trees, the CTV infection rates through the coastal citrus production areas were continually increasing, with many ELISA-positive samples appearing symptomless, prompting the need to develop strain-specific assays. Using CTV-VT cDNA fragments, as hybridization probes, the genetic diversity among local CTV isolates was demonstrated. With the emergence of the PCR technology, we developed a CTV-dsRNA cloning method based on the ligation of known oligonucleotide molecules to dsRNA ends and the use of complementary oligonucleotides for cDNA synthesis and PCR amplification. The method allowed the cloning of a cDNA molecule complementary to a defective dsRNA of 2.4 kb with intact 5 and 3 ends of the CTV-VT genome. A list of publications, resulting from continuous collaborative work with local and foreign associates and students on the development and adaptation of novel CTV methodologies, is present.

A Brief Historical Account of the Family Closteroviridae

The history is outlined of the steps that, starting from the establishment of the "taxonomic group Closterovirus," have brought to the erection of the family Closteroviridae, a taxon comprising plant viruses that possess very long helically constructed filamentous particles and a positive-sense single-stranded, monopartite or bipartite RNA genome and are transmitted either by aphids (genus Closterovirus), pseudococcid mealybugs/soft scale insects (genus Vitivirus), or whiteflies (genus Crinivirus) or have no known vector (genus Velarivirus).

Citrus tristeza virus: Host RNA Silencing and Virus Counteraction

To dissect the host RNA silencing response incited by citrus tristeza virus (CTV, genus Closterovirus), a (+) ssRNA of ~19300 nt, and the counter reaction deployed by the virus via its three RNA silencing suppressors (RSS), the small RNAs (sRNAs) of three virus-host combinations were deep sequenced. The subsequent analysis indicated that CTV sRNAs (1) constitute more than half of the total sRNAs in the susceptible Mexican lime and sweet orange, while only 3.5% in the restrictive sour orange; (2) are mostly of 21-22 nt, with those of (+) sense predominating slightly; and (3) derive from all the CTV genome, as evidenced by its entire recomposition from viral sRNA contigs but adopt an asymmetric pattern with a hotspot mapping at the 3'-terminal ~2500 nt. The citrus homologues of Arabidopsis Dicer-like (DCL) 4 and 2 most likely generate the 21 and 22 nt CTV sRNAs, respectively, by dicing the gRNA and the 3' co-terminal sgRNAs and, particularly, their double-stranded forms accumulating in infected cells. The plant sRNA profile, very similar and dominated by the 24 nt sRNAs in the three mock-inoculated controls, displayed a major reduction of the 24 nt sRNAs in Mexican lime and sweet orange, but not in sour orange. CTV infection also influences the levels of certain microRNAs.The high accumulation of CTV sRNAs in two of the citrus hosts examined suggests that it is not their synthesis, but their function, the target of the RSS encoded by CTV: p25 (intercellular), p23 (intracellular) and p20 (both). The two latter might block the loading of CTV sRNAs into the RNA silencing complex or interfere with it through alternative mechanisms. Of the three CTV RSS, p23 is the one that has been more thoroughly studied. It is a multifunctional RNA-binding protein with a putative Zn finger domain and basic motifs that (1) has no homologues in other closteroviruses, (2) accumulates in the nucleolus and plasmodesmata, (3) regulates the asymmetric balance of CTV (+) and (-) RNA strands, and (4) induces CTV syndromes and stimulates systemic infection in certain citrus species when expressed as a transgene ectopically or in phloem-associated cells.

Mealybug Wilt of Pineapple and Associated Viruses

Mealybug wilt of pineapple (MWP) is a disease of pineapple that has a long history in Hawaii, but is present throughout the world where pineapples are grown in tropical regions. The disease has an interesting etiology that is poorly understood but involves an association with virus particles, mealybug vectors, and ants which spread the mealybug vectors. Several distinct pineapple mealybug wilt-associated virus (PMWaV) species have been identified thus far with potential further member species yet to be characterized. Pineapple mealybug wilt-associated viruses are member species of the Ampelovirus genus of the Closteroviridae family. Ampeloviruses are split into two subgroups, subgroup I and subgroup II. PMWaV-2 is a subgroup II member, and these have a longer and more complex genome with additional genes on the 3’ terminus of the RNA genome compared to subgroup I ampeloviruses. PMWaV-2, along with the presence of mealybug vectors, have been shown to be necessary factors in symptom development in Hawaii. Some of these extra genes in the 3’ of PMWaV-2 have recently been shown to function as silencing suppressors, and may play a role in the virulence of PMWaV-2 and symptom development. In other regions of the world, reports of symptomatic plants without PMWaV-2 infection, but with PMWaV-1, -3 or some combination, contradict the requirement of PMWaV-2 for symptom development in MWP. It is possible that further, uncharacterized PMWaVs may be present in symptomatic pineapple plants that test negative for PMWaV-2, explaining the inconsistency in symptom development. More research is necessary to explore the confusing etiology of the MWP disease, and to perhaps shed light upon the symptom development.

Development of a Real-Time RT-PCR for the Universal Detection of LChV1 and Study of the Seasonal Fluctuation of the Viral Titer in Sweet Cherry Cultivars

Little cherry virus 1 (LChV1) is a sweet cherry pathogen which has lately been reported in other Prunus spp. LChV1 variability makes reliable detection a challenging undertaking. The objective of this work was to develop a rapid, sensitive, and reliable one-tube, real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the detection and quantification of LChV1. Primers and a TaqMan probe were designed, using conserved regions of the capsid protein gene. Detection range was evaluated using several divergent viral isolates. The amplification efficiency of the method was estimated at 96.7%, whereas the detection limit was about 100 RNA copies. The protocol was applied in the study of virus fluctuation within leaves and phloem tissue throughout the year and the best periods to test and plant tissues to sample were determined. Comparative analysis of this method with a previously published nested RT-PCR revealed the higher analytical and diagnostic sensitivity of the new test, making it a reliable tool that can be used in routine testing and certification programs.

Functional diversification upon leader protease domain duplication in the Citrus tristeza virus genome: Role of RNA sequences and the encoded proteins

Viruses from the family Closteroviridae show an example of intra-genome duplications of more than one gene. In addition to the hallmark coat protein gene duplication, several members possess a tandem duplication of papain-like leader proteases. In this study, we demonstrate that domains encoding the L1 and L2 proteases in the Citrus tristeza virus genome underwent a significant functional divergence at the RNA and protein levels. We show that the L1 protease is crucial for viral accumulation and establishment of initial infection, whereas its coding region is vital for virus transport. On the other hand, the second protease is indispensable for virus infection of its natural citrus host, suggesting that L2 has evolved an important adaptive function that mediates virus interaction with the woody host.

In silico analysis of the grapefruit sRNAome, transcriptome and gene regulation in response to CTV-CDVd co-infection

BACKGROUND

Small RNA (sRNA) associated gene regulation has been shown to play a significant role during plant-pathogen interaction. In commercial citrus orchards co-infection of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and viroids occur naturally.

METHODS

A next-generation sequencing-based approach was used to study the sRNA and transcriptional response in grapefruit to the co-infection of CTV and Citrus dwarfing viroid.

RESULTS

The co-infection resulted in a difference in the expression of a number of sRNA species when comparing healthy and infected plants; the majority of these were derived from transcripts processed in a phased manner. Several RNA transcripts were also differentially expressed, including transcripts derived from two genes, predicted to be under the regulation of sRNAs. These genes are involved in plant hormone systems; one in the abscisic acid, and the other in the cytokinin regulatory pathway. Additional analysis of virus- and viroid-derived small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) showed areas on the pathogen genomes associated with increased siRNA synthesis. Most interestingly, the starting position of the p23 silencing suppressor's sub-genomic RNA generated a siRNA hotspot on the CTV genome.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the involvement of various genes, as well as endogenous and exogenous RNA-derived sRNA species in the plant-defence response. The results highlighted the role of sRNA-directed plant hormone regulation during biotic stress, as well as a counter-response of plants to virus suppressors of RNA-silencing.

A method of determining where to target surveillance efforts in heterogeneous epidemiological systems

The spread of pathogens into new environments poses a considerable threat to human, animal, and plant health, and by extension, human and animal wellbeing, ecosystem function, and agricultural productivity, worldwide. Early detection through effective surveillance is a key strategy to reduce the risk of their establishment. Whilst it is well established that statistical and economic considerations are of vital importance when planning surveillance efforts, it is also important to consider epidemiological characteristics of the pathogen in question-including heterogeneities within the epidemiological system itself. One of the most pronounced realisations of this heterogeneity is seen in the case of vector-borne pathogens, which spread between 'hosts' and 'vectors'-with each group possessing distinct epidemiological characteristics. As a result, an important question when planning surveillance for emerging vector-borne pathogens is where to place sampling resources in order to detect the pathogen as early as possible. We answer this question by developing a statistical function which describes the probability distributions of the prevalences of infection at first detection in both hosts and vectors. We also show how this method can be adapted in order to maximise the probability of early detection of an emerging pathogen within imposed sample size and/or cost constraints, and demonstrate its application using two simple models of vector-borne citrus pathogens. Under the assumption of a linear cost function, we find that sampling costs are generally minimised when either hosts or vectors, but not both, are sampled.

Self-interaction of Citrus tristeza virus p33 protein via N-terminal helix

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), the most economically important viral pathogen of citrus, encodes a unique protein, p33. CTV p33 shows no similarity with other known proteins, yet plays an important role in viral pathogenesis: it extends the virus host range and mediates virus ability to exclude superinfection by other variants of the virus. Previously we demonstrated that p33 is an integral membrane protein and appears to share characteristics of viral movement proteins. In this study, we show that the p33 protein self-interacts in vitro and in vivo using co-immunoprecipitation, yeast two hybrid, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays. Furthermore, a helix located at the N-terminus of the protein is required and sufficient for the protein self-interaction.

Simultaneous visualization of two Citrus tristeza virus genotypes provides new insights into the structure of multi-component virus populations in a host

Complex Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) populations composed of mixtures of different strains of the virus are commonly found in citrus trees in the field. At present, little is known about how these populations are formed, maintained, and how they are structured within a host. Here we used a novel in situ hybridization approach allowing simultaneous visualization of two different RNA targets with high sensitivity and specificity to examine the distribution of two isolates, T36 and T68-1, representing phylogenetically distinct strains of CTV, in a citrus host in single and mixed infections. Remarkably, in doubly inoculated plants the two virus variants appeared to be well mixed within the infected tissue and showed no spatial segregation. In addition, both CTV variants were often found occupying the same cells. Possible mechanisms involved in shaping CTV populations and the biological significance of the observed lack of structural separation of the individual components are discussed.

The conundrum of a unique protein encoded by citrus tristeza virus that is dispensable for infection of most hosts yet shows characteristics of a viral movement protein

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), one of the most economically important viruses, produces a unique protein, p33, which is encoded only in the genomes of isolates of CTV. Recently, we demonstrated that membrane association of the p33 protein confers virus ability to extend its host range. In this work we show that p33 shares characteristics of viral movement proteins. Upon expression in a host cell, the protein localizes to plasmodesmata and displays the ability to form extracellular tubules. Furthermore, p33 appears to traffic via the cellular secretory pathway and the actin network to plasmodesmata locations and is likely being recycled through the endocytic pathway. Finally, our study reveals that p33 colocalizes with a putative movement protein of CTV, the p6 protein. These results suggest a potential role of p33 as a noncanonical viral movement protein, which mediates virus translocation in the specific hosts.

Membrane association of a nonconserved viral protein confers virus ability to extend its host range

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), the largest and most complex member of the family Closteroviridae, encodes a unique protein, p33, which shows no homology with other known proteins, however, plays an important role in virus pathogenesis. In this study, we examined some of the characteristics of p33. We show that p33 is a membrane-associated protein that is inserted into the membrane via a transmembrane helix formed by hydrophobic amino acid residues at the C-terminal end of the protein. Removal of this transmembrane domain (TMD) dramatically altered the intracellular localization of p33. Moreover, the TMD alone was sufficient to confer membrane localization of an unrelated protein. Finally, a CTV variant that produced a truncated p33 lacking the TMD was unable to infect sour orange, one of the selected virus hosts, which infection requires p33, suggesting that membrane association of p33 is important for the ability of CTV to extend its host range.

Citrus tristeza virus: making an ally from an enemy

Virus diseases of perennial trees and vines have characteristics not amenable to study using small model annual plants. Unique disease symptoms such as graft incompatibilities and stem pitting cause considerable crop losses. Also, viruses in these long-living plants tend to accumulate complex populations of viruses and strains. Considerable progress has been made in understanding the biology and genetics of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and in developing it into a tool for crop protection and improvement. The diseases in tree and vine crops have commonalities for which CTV can be used to develop a baseline. The purpose of this review is to provide a necessary background of systems and reagents developed for CTV that can be used for continued progress in this area and to point out the value of the CTV-citrus system in answering important questions on plant-virus interactions and developing new methods for controlling plant diseases.

A viral protein mediates superinfection exclusion at the whole-organism level but is not required for exclusion at the cellular level

Superinfection exclusion (SIE), the ability of an established virus infection to interfere with a secondary infection by the same or a closely related virus, has been described for different viruses, including important pathogens of humans, animals, and plants. Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a positive-sense RNA virus, represents a valuable model system for studying SIE due to the existence of several phylogenetically distinct strains. Furthermore, CTV allows SIE to be examined at the whole-organism level. Previously, we demonstrated that SIE by CTV is a virus-controlled function that requires the viral protein p33. In this study, we show that p33 mediates SIE at the whole-organism level, while it is not required for exclusion at the cellular level. Primary infection of a host with a fluorescent protein-tagged CTV variant lacking p33 did not interfere with the establishment of a secondary infection by the same virus labeled with a different fluorescent protein. However, cellular coinfection by both viruses was rare. The obtained observations, along with estimates of the cellular multiplicity of infection (MOI) and MOI model selection, suggested that low levels of cellular coinfection appear to be best explained by exclusion at the cellular level. Based on these results, we propose that SIE by CTV is operated at two levels--the cellular and the whole-organism levels--by two distinct mechanisms that could function independently. This novel aspect of viral SIE highlights the intriguing complexity of this phenomenon, further understanding of which may open up new avenues to manage virus diseases.

IMPORTANCE

Many viruses exhibit superinfection exclusion (SIE), the ability of an established virus infection to interfere with a secondary infection by related viruses. SIE plays an important role in the pathogenesis and evolution of virus populations. The observations described here suggest that SIE could be controlled independently at different levels of the host: the whole-organism level or the level of individual cells. The p33 protein of citrus tristeza virus (CTV), an RNA virus, was shown to mediate SIE at the whole-organism level, while it appeared not to be required for exclusion at the cellular level. SIE by CTV is, therefore, highly complex and appears to use mechanisms different from those proposed for other viruses. A better understanding of this phenomenon may lead to the development of new strategies for controlling viral diseases in human populations and agroecosystems.

Superinfection exclusion by Citrus tristeza virus does not correlate with the production of viral small RNAs

Superinfection exclusion (SIE), a phenomenon in which a preexisting viral infection prevents a secondary infection with the same or closely related virus, has been described for different viruses, including important pathogens of humans, animals, and plants. Several mechanisms acting at various stages of the viral life cycle have been proposed to explain SIE. Most cases of SIE in plant virus systems were attributed to induction of RNA silencing, a host defense mechanism that is mediated by small RNAs. Here we show that SIE by Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) does not correlate with the production of viral small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). CTV variants, which differed in the SIE ability, had similar siRNAs profiles. Along with our previous observations that the exclusion phenomenon requires a specific viral protein, p33, the new data suggest that SIE by CTV is highly complex and appears to use different mechanisms than those proposed for other viruses.

A personal history of virus-based vector construction

The ability to express foreign genes or to silence endogenous genes in plants has revolutionized both basic and applied plant biology. Virus-based expression systems, in which the foreign mRNA is greatly amplified by virus replication, can produce very high levels of proteins or peptides in leaves and other tissues. Vectors have been available for about 25 years. They are commonplace as laboratory tools, but their initial commercial expectations have not been met for numerous reasons. Yet, applications of viral vectors are still evolving. This chapter focuses on our laboratory's involvement in developing virus-based vectors in plants. We created the first 'add-a-gene' vectors that were capable of replication and movement throughout plants. These vectors were based on tobacco mosaic virus. Through the evolution of several prototypes, stable vectors were developed that produced relatively large amounts of product in plants. Recently, we created similar vectors for citrus trees based on citrus tristeza virus. Even though the citrus vectors were created as laboratory tools for improving the crop, circumstances have changed the applications to protection and therapy of trees in the field.

The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of Citrus tristeza virus forms oligomers

The RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRp) from Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) were tagged with HA and FLAG epitopes. Differentially tagged proteins were expressed either individually or concomitantly in Escherichia coli. Immunoprecipitation of the expressed proteins with anti-FLAG antibody followed by Western blot with anti-HA antibody demonstrated that molecules of RdRp from CTV interact to form oligomers. Yeast two-hybrid assays showed that molecules of RdRp interact in eukaryotic cells. Co-immunoprecipitation with anti-FLAG antibody of truncated HA-tagged RdRps (RdRpΔ1-166-HA, RdRpΔ1-390-HA, RdRp1-169-HA) co-expressed with full-length RdRp-FLAG showed that only RdRp1-169-HA interacted with the full-length FLAG-RdRp. Yeast two-hybrid assays with truncated RdRp constructs confirmed that the oligomerization site resides in the N-terminal region and that the first 169 aa of CTV RdRp are necessary and sufficient for oligomerization both in bacterial and yeast cells. Development of control strategies targeting viral RdRp oligomer formation may inhibit virus replication and prove useful in control of CTV.

Virus-based transient expression vectors for woody crops: a new frontier for vector design and use

Virus-based expression vectors are commonplace tools for the production of proteins or the induction of RNA silencing in herbaceous plants. This review considers a completely different set of uses for viral vectors in perennial fruit and nut crops, which can be productive for periods of up to 100 years. Viral vectors could be used in the field to modify existing plants. Furthermore, with continually emerging pathogens and pests, viral vectors could express genes to protect the plants or even to treat plants after they become infected. As technologies develop during the life span of these crops, viral vectors can be used for adding new genes as an alternative to pushing up the crop and replanting with transgenic plants. Another value of virus-based vectors is that they add nothing permanently to the environment. This requires that effective and stable viral vectors be developed for specific crops from endemic viruses. Studies using viruses from perennial hosts suggest that these objectives could be accomplished.

Citrus tristeza virus-host interactions

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a phloem-limited virus whose natural host range is restricted to citrus and related species. Although the virus has killed millions of trees, almost destroying whole industries, and continually limits production in many citrus growing areas, most isolates are mild or symptomless in most of their host range. There is little understanding of how the virus causes severe disease in some citrus and none in others. Movement and distribution of CTV differs considerably from that of well-studied viruses of herbaceous plants where movement occurs largely through adjacent cells. In contrast, CTV systemically infects plants mainly by long-distance movement with only limited cell-to-cell movement. The virus is transported through sieve elements and occasionally enters an adjacent companion or phloem parenchyma cell where virus replication occurs. In some plants this is followed by cell-to-cell movement into only a small cluster of adjacent cells, while in others there is no cell-to-cell movement. Different proportions of cells adjacent to sieve elements become infected in different plant species. This appears to be related to how well viral gene products interact with specific hosts. CTV has three genes (p33, p18, and p13) that are not necessary for infection of most of its hosts, but are needed in different combinations for infection of certain citrus species. These genes apparently were acquired by the virus to extend its host range. Some specific viral gene products have been implicated in symptom induction. Remarkably, the deletion of these genes from the virus genome can induce large increases in stem pitting (SP) symptoms. The p23 gene, which is a suppressor of RNA silencing and a regulator of viral RNA synthesis, has been shown to be the cause of seedling yellows (SY) symptoms in sour orange. Most isolates of CTV in nature are populations of different strains of CTV. The next frontier of CTV biology is the understanding how the virus variants in those mixtures interact with each other and cause diseases.

The closterovirus-derived gene expression and RNA interference vectors as tools for research and plant biotechnology

Important progress in understanding replication, interactions with host plants, and evolution of closteroviruses enabled engineering of several vectors for gene expression and virus-induced gene silencing. Due to the broad host range of closteroviruses, these vectors expanded vector applicability to include important woody plants such as citrus and grapevine. Furthermore, large closterovirus genomes offer genetic capacity and stability unrivaled by other plant viral vectors. These features provided immense opportunities for using closterovirus vectors for the functional genomics studies and pathogen control in economically valuable crops. This review briefly summarizes advances in closterovirus research during the last decade, explores the relationships between virus biology and vector design, and outlines the most promising directions for future application of closterovirus vectors.

Developing an understanding of cross-protection by Citrus tristeza virus

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) causes two citrus diseases that have caused devastating losses in global citrus production. The first disease is quick decline of trees propagated on the sour orange rootstock. The second disease is stem pitting, which severely affects a number of economically important citrus varieties regardless of the rootstock used and results in reduced tree growth and vigor as well as in reduced fruit size and quality. Both diseases continue to invade new areas. While quick decline could be effectively managed by the use of resistant and/or tolerant rootstocks, the only means to protect commercial citrus against endemic stem pitting isolates of CTV has been cross-protection with mild isolates of the virus. In some citrus areas cross-protection has been successful and allowed production of certain citrus cultivars despite the presence of severe stem pitting isolates in those regions. However, many other attempts to find isolates that would provide sustained protection against aggressive isolates of the virus had failed. In general, there has been no understanding why some mild isolates were effective and others failed to protect. We have been working on the mechanism of cross-protection by CTV. Recent considerable progress has significantly advanced our understanding of how cross-protection may work in the citrus/CTV pathosystem. As we demonstrated, only isolates that belong to the same strain of the virus cross protect against each other, while isolates from different strains do not. We believe that the results of our research could now make finding protecting isolates relatively straightforward. This review discusses some of the history of CTV cross-protection along with the recent findings and our "recipe" for selection of protecting isolates.

Dramatic Change in Citrus tristeza virus Populations in the Dominican Republic

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is the most destructive viral pathogen of citrus and has been an important concern for the citrus industry in the Dominican Republic. Earlier studies documented widespread distribution of mild isolates of the T30 genotype, which caused no disease in the infected trees, and a low incidence of isolates of the VT and T3 genotypes, which were associated with economically damaging decline and stem-pitting symptoms in sweet orange and Persian lime, the two major citrus varieties grown in the Dominican Republic. In light of the dramatic increase in the number of severely diseased citrus trees throughout the country over the last decade, suggesting that field populations of CTV have changed, we examined the CTV pathosystem in the Dominican Republic to assess the dynamics of virus populations. In this work, we characterized the molecular composition of 163 CTV isolates from different citrus-growing regions. Our data demonstrate a dramatic change in CTV populations, with the VT genotype now widely disseminated throughout the different regions and with the presence of two new virus genotypes, T36 and RB. Multiple infections of trees resulted in development of complex virus populations composed of different genotypes.

Enhancement or attenuation of disease by deletion of genes from Citrus tristeza virus

Stem pitting is a common virus-induced disease of perennial woody plants induced by a range of different viruses. The phenotype results from sporadic areas of the stem in which normal xylem and phloem development is prevented during growth of stems. These alterations interfere with carbohydrate transport, resulting in reduced plant growth and yield. Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a phloem-limited closterovirus, induces economically important stem-pitting diseases of citrus. CTV has three nonconserved genes (p33, p18, and p13) that are not related to genes of other viruses and that are not required for systemic infection of some species of citrus, which allowed us to examine the effect of deletions of these genes on symptom phenotypes. In the most susceptible experimental host, Citrus macrophylla, the full-length virus causes only very mild stem-pitting symptoms. Surprisingly, we found that certain deletion combinations (p33 and p18 and/or p13) induced greatly increased stem-pitting symptoms, while other combinations (p13 or p13 plus p18) resulted in reduced stem pitting. These results suggest that the stem-pitting phenotype, which is one of more economically important disease phenotypes, can result not from a specific sequence or protein but from a balance between the expression of different viral genes. Unexpectedly, using green fluorescent protein-tagged full-length virus and deletion mutants (CTV9Δp33 and CTV9Δp33Δp18Δp13), the virus was found at pitted areas in abnormal locations outside the normal ring of phloem. Thus, increased stem pitting was associated not only with a prevention of xylem production but also with a proliferation of cells that supported viral replication, suggesting that at random areas of stems the virus can elicit changes in cellular differentiation and development.

Superinfection exclusion is an active virus-controlled function that requires a specific viral protein

Superinfection exclusion, a phenomenon in which a preexisting viral infection prevents a secondary infection with the same or a closely related virus, has been described for various viruses, including important pathogens of humans, animals, and plants. The phenomenon was initially used to test the relatedness of plant viruses. Subsequently, purposeful infection with a mild isolate has been implemented as a protective measure against virus isolates that cause severe disease. In the medical and veterinary fields, superinfection exclusion was found to interfere with repeated applications of virus-based vaccines to individuals with persistent infections and with the introduction of multicomponent vaccines. In spite of its significance, our understanding of this phenomenon is surprisingly incomplete. Recently, it was demonstrated that superinfection exclusion of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a positive-sense RNA closterovirus, occurs only between isolates of the same strain, but not between isolates of different strains of the virus. In this study, I show that superinfection exclusion by CTV requires production of a specific viral protein, the p33 protein. Lack of the functional p33 protein completely eliminated the ability of the virus to exclude superinfection by the same or a closely related virus. Remarkably, the protein appeared to function only in a homology-dependent manner. A cognate protein from a heterologous strain failed to confer the exclusion, suggesting the existence of precise interactions of the p33 protein with other factors involved in this complex phenomenon.

A plant virus evolved by acquiring multiple nonconserved genes to extend its host range

Viruses have evolved as combinations of genes whose products interact with cellular components to produce progeny virus throughout the plants. Some viral genes, particularly those that are involved in replication and assembly, tend to be relatively conserved, whereas other genes that have evolved for interactions with the specific host for movement and to counter host-defense systems tend to be less conserved. Closteroviridae encode 1-5 nonconserved ORFs. Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a Closterovirus, possesses nonconserved p33, p18, and p13 genes that are expendable for systemic infection of the two laboratory hosts, Citrus macrophylla and Mexican lime. In this study, we show that the extended host range of CTV requires these nonconserved genes. The p33 gene was required to systemically infect sour orange and lemon trees, whereas either the p33 or the p18 gene was sufficient for systemic infection of grapefruit trees and the p33 or the p13 gene was sufficient for systemic infection of calamondin plants. Thus, these three genes are required for systemic infection of the full host range of CTV, but different genes were specific for different hosts. Remarkably, either of two genes was sufficient for infection of some citrus hybrids. These findings suggest that CTV acquired multiple nonconserved genes (p33, p18, and p13) and, as a result, gained the ability to interact with multiple hosts, thus extending its host range during the course of evolution. These results greatly extend the complexity of known virus-plant interactions.

Heterologous minor coat proteins of Citrus tristeza virus strains affect encapsidation, but the coexpression of HSP70h and p61 restores encapsidation to wild-type levels

The long flexuous bipolar virions of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a Closterovirus, are encapsidated with two capsid proteins at opposite ends: the minor coat protein (CPm) encapsidates the 5' 630 nts of the genomic RNA and the major coat protein encapsidates the remainder of the genome. In this study, we found encapsidation of CTV CPm in the absence of other assembly-related proteins is highly specific in contrast to most plant viruses that allow virion assembly by a range of heterologous coat proteins. Heterologous CPms with 95-96% amino acid identity from related strains in CTV-CPm, a replicon with CPm as the only assembly-related ORF, either failed to initiate encapsidation or reduced encapsidation substantially. Substitution of subsets of amino acids revealed that the amino acids that differ between positions 121 and 180 of the VT strain, and 61 and 120 of the T3 strain were involved in specific encapsidation. We further mapped the specific encapsidation to a single amino acid: mutation of methionine(165) to threonine (VT type) or serine(105) to proline (T3 type) in CTV-CPm failed to form nucleocapsids. However, the heterologous CPm in combination with both HSP70h and p61 proteins, but not HSP70h or p61 alone, encapsidated at wild-type levels, suggesting that specific encapsidation by CPm was mitigated by the combination of HSP70h and p61. Thus, in addition to the previously described functions of HSP70h and p61 of greatly enhanced virion formation and restriction of CPm encapsidation to the 5' 630 nts of the genomic RNA, these proteins facilitate encapsidation by heterologous CPms.

Infection with strains of Citrus tristeza virus does not exclude superinfection by other strains of the virus

Superinfection exclusion or homologous interference, a phenomenon in which a primary viral infection prevents a secondary infection with the same or closely related virus, has been observed commonly for viruses in various systems, including viruses of bacteria, plants, and animals. With plant viruses, homologous interference initially was used as a test of virus relatedness to define whether two virus isolates were "strains" of the same virus or represented different viruses, and subsequently purposeful infection with a mild isolate was implemented as a protective measure against isolates of the virus causing severe disease. In this study we examined superinfection exclusion of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a positive-sense RNA closterovirus. Thirteen naturally occurring isolates of CTV representing five different virus strains and a set of isolates originated from virus constructs engineered based on an infectious cDNA clone of T36 isolate of CTV, including hybrids containing sequences from different isolates, were examined for their ability to prevent superinfection by another isolate of the virus. We show that superinfection exclusion occurred only between isolates of the same strain and not between isolates of different strains. When isolates of the same strain were used for sequential plant inoculation, the primary infection provided complete exclusion of the challenge isolate, whereas isolates from heterologous strains appeared to have no effect on replication, movement or systemic infection by the challenge virus. Surprisingly, substitution of extended cognate sequences from isolates of the T68 or T30 strains into T36 did not confer the ability of resulting hybrid viruses to exclude superinfection by those donor strains. Overall, these results do not appear to be explained by mechanisms proposed previously for other viruses. Moreover, these observations bring an understanding of some previously unexplained fundamental features of CTV biology and, most importantly, build a foundation for the strategy of selecting mild isolates that would efficiently exclude severe virus isolates as a practical means to control CTV diseases.

Diversity of citrus tristeza virus strains indicated by hybridization with cloned cDNA sequences

Cloned cDNA sequences 500-2000 base pairs long, derived from a severe citrus tristeza virus (CTV) isolate, were used to study sequence homology with RNA of nine other serologically indistinguishable CTV isolates which differed in their biological properties. Six of the nine CTV isolates hybridized positively with the tested cDNA clones, while three others hybridized differentially with these cDNA clones. The potential use of cloned viral sequences for typing of virus strains is discussed.

Three genes of Citrus tristeza virus are dispensable for infection and movement throughout some varieties of citrus trees

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), a member of the Closteroviridae, possesses a 19.3-kb positive-stranded RNA genome that is organized into twelve open reading frames (ORFs). The CTV genome contains two sets of conserved genes, which are characteristic of this virus group, the replication gene block (ORF 1a and 1b) and the quintuple gene block (p6, HSP70 h, p61, CPm, and CP). With the exception of the p6 gene, they are required for replication and virion assembly. CTV contains five additional genes, p33, p18, p13, p20 and p23, in the 3' half of the genome, some of which (p33, p18 and p13) are not conserved among other members of this virus group, and have been proposed to have evolved for specific interactions with the citrus host. In the present study, the requirements for systemic infection of citrus trees of p33, p6, p18, p13 and p20 were examined. Viral mutants with a deletion in the p6 or the p20 ORF failed to infect citrus plants systemically, suggesting their possible roles in virus translocation/systemic infection. However, we found that deletions within the p33, p18 or p13 ORF individually resulted in no significant loss of ability of the virus to infect, multiply, and spread throughout citrus trees. Furthermore, deletions in the p33, p18 and p13 genes in all possible combinations including deletions in all three genes allowed the virus to systemically invade citrus trees. Green fluorescent protein-tagged CTV variants with deletions in the p33 ORF or the p33, p18 and p13 ORFs demonstrated that the movement and distribution of these deletion mutants were similar to that of the wild-type virus.

Citrus tristeza virus: survival at the edge of the movement continuum

Systemic invasion of plants by viruses is thought to involve two processes: cell-to-cell movement between adjacent cells and long-distance movement that allows the virus to rapidly move through sieve elements and unload at the growing parts of the plant. There is a continuum of proportions of these processes that determines the degrees of systemic infection of different plants by different viruses. We examined the systemic distribution of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) in citrus species with a range of susceptibilities. By using a "pure" culture of CTV from a cDNA clone and green fluorescent protein-labeled virus we show that both cell-to-cell and long-distance movement are unusually limited, and the degree of limitation varies depending on the citrus host. In the more-susceptible hosts CTV infected only a small portion of phloem-associated cells, and moreover, the number of infection sites in less-susceptible citrus species was substantially decreased further, indicating that long-distance movement was reduced in those hosts. Analysis of infection foci in the two most differential citrus species, Citrus macrophylla and sour orange, revealed that in the more-susceptible host the infection foci were composed of a cluster of multiple cells, while in the less-susceptible host infection foci were usually single cells, suggesting that essentially no cell-to-cell movement occurred in the latter host. Thus, CTV in sour orange represents a pattern of systemic infection in which the virus appears to function with only the long-distance movement mechanism, yet is able to survive in nature.

In vivo and in vitro expression analysis of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of Citrus tristeza virus

Expression of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) was studied in vivo and in vitro using a polyclonal antiserum raised against the recombinant CTV-RdRp protein. Although a 57-kDa CTV-RdRp was expected to be expressed by a +1 translational frameshift at the carboxyl terminus of a 400-kDa polyprotein, a 50-kDa protein was detected in CTV-infected but not in healthy citrus tissue by Western blot. This suggests that the RdRp was cleaved from the CTV polyprotein. The 50-kDa protein was present in both the cytoplasmic and membrane fractions, but it accumulated mainly in the membrane fraction, where most of the replication-associated proteins of RNA viruses are found. When the expression of a cloned CTV-RdRp gene encoding a 60-kDa fusion protein was studied in vitro in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate system, two smaller proteins of about 50 kDa and 10 kDa were detected in addition to the expected 60-kDa protein. All three proteins were immunoprecipitated with the anti-CTV-RdRp serum, suggesting that the 50-kDa and 10-kDa proteins were fragments of the 60-kDa CTV-RdRp fusion protein. When the expression of the RdRp was analyzed at different times during in vitro translation, the 60-kDa and 50-kDa proteins were detected at all time points, and a small amount of the 10-kDa protein was detected after 30 min of translation. These results suggest that the CTV-RdRp may also be cleaved in vitro in the rabbit reticulocyte lysate.

Stem pitting and seedling yellows symptoms of Citrus tristeza virus infection may be determined by minor sequence variants

The isolates of Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), the most destructive viral pathogen of citrus, display a high level of variability. As a result of genetic bottleneck induced by the bud-inoculation of CTV-infected material, inoculated seedlings of Citrus wilsonii Tanaka displayed different symptoms. All successfully grafted plants showed severe symptoms of stem pitting and seedling yellows, while plants in which inoculated buds died displayed mild symptoms. Since complex CTV population structure was detected in the parental host, the aim of this work was to investigate how it changed after the virus transmission, and to correlate it with observed symptoms. The coat protein gene sequence of the predominant genotype was identical in parental and grafted plants and clustered to the phylogenetic group 5 encompassing severe reference isolates. In seedlings displaying severe symptoms, the low-frequency variants clustering to other phylogenetic groups were detected, as well. Indicator plants were inoculated with buds taken from unsuccessfully grafted C. wilsonii seedlings. Surprisingly, they displayed no severe symptoms despite the presence of phylogenetic group 5 genomic variants. The results suggest that the appearance of severe symptoms in this case is probably induced by a complex CTV population structure found in seedlings displaying severe symptoms, and not directly by the predominant genomic variant.