Genetic control of germline sexual dimorphism in Drosophila

Female germline expression of OVO transcription factor bridges Drosophila generations

OVO is required for karyotypically female germ cell viability but has no known function in the male germline in Drosophila. ovo is autoregulated by two antagonistic isoforms, OVO-A and OVO-B. All ovo- alleles were created as partial revertants of the antimorphic ovoD1 allele. Creation of new targeted alleles in an ovo+ background indicated that disrupting the germline-specific exon extension of ovo-B leads to an arrested egg chamber phenotype, rather than germ cell death. RNA-seq analysis, including >1K full length cDNAs, indicates that ovo utilizes a number of unannotated splice variations in the extended exon and a minor population of ovo-B transcripts utilizes an alternative splice. This indicates that classical ovo alleles such as ovoD1rv23, are not truly null for ovo, and are likely to be weak antimorphs. To generate bonafide nulls, we deleted the ovo-A and ovo-B promoters showing that only ovo-B is required for female germ cell viability and there is an early and polyphasic developmental requirement for ovo-B in the female germline. To visualize OVO expression and localization, we endogenously tagged ovo and found nuclear OVO in all differentiating female germ cells throughout oogenesis in adults. We also found that OVO is maternally deposited into the embryo, where it showed nuclear localization in newly formed pole cells. Maternal OVO persisted in embryonic germ cells until zygotic OVO expression was detectable, suggesting that there is continuous nuclear OVO expression in the female germline in the transition from one generation to the next.

X chromosomes show relaxed selection and complete somatic dosage compensation across Timema stick insect species

Sex chromosomes have evolved repeatedly across the tree of life. As they are present in different copy numbers in males and females, they are expected to experience different selection pressures than the autosomes, with consequences including a faster rate of evolution, increased accumulation of sexually antagonistic alleles and the evolution of dosage compensation. Whether these consequences are general or linked to idiosyncrasies of specific taxa is not clear as relatively few taxa have been studied thus far. Here, we use whole-genome sequencing to identify and characterize the evolution of the X chromosome in five species of Timema stick insects with XX:X0 sex determination. The X chromosome had a similar size (approximately 12% of the genome) and gene content across all five species, suggesting that the X chromosome originated prior to the diversification of the genus. Genes on the X showed evidence of relaxed selection (elevated dN/dS) and a slower evolutionary rate (dN + dS) than genes on the autosomes, likely due to sex-biased mutation rates. Genes on the X also showed almost complete dosage compensation in somatic tissues (heads and legs), but dosage compensation was absent in the reproductive tracts. Contrary to prediction, sex-biased genes showed little enrichment on the X, suggesting that the advantage X-linkage provides to the accumulation of sexually antagonistic alleles is weak. Overall, we found the consequences of X-linkage on gene sequences and expression to be similar across Timema species, showing the characteristics of the X chromosome are surprisingly consistent over 30 million years of evolution.

Absence of X-chromosome dosage compensation in the primordial germ cells of Drosophila embryos

Dosage compensation is a mechanism that equalizes sex chromosome gene expression between the sexes. In Drosophila, individuals with two X chromosomes (XX) become female, whereas males have one X chromosome (XY). In males, dosage compensation of the X chromosome in the soma is achieved by five proteins and two non-coding RNAs, which assemble into the male-specific lethal (MSL) complex to upregulate X-linked genes twofold. By contrast, it remains unclear whether dosage compensation occurs in the germline. To address this issue, we performed transcriptome analysis of male and female primordial germ cells (PGCs). We found that the expression levels of X-linked genes were approximately twofold higher in female PGCs than in male PGCs. Acetylation of lysine residue 16 on histone H4 (H4K16ac), which is catalyzed by the MSL complex, was undetectable in these cells. In male PGCs, hyperactivation of X-linked genes and H4K16ac were induced by overexpression of the essential components of the MSL complex, which were expressed at very low levels in PGCs. Together, these findings indicate that failure of MSL complex formation results in the absence of X-chromosome dosage compensation in male PGCs.

Dynamic sex chromosome expression in Drosophila male germ cells

Given their copy number differences and unique modes of inheritance, the evolved gene content and expression of sex chromosomes is unusual. In many organisms the X and Y chromosomes are inactivated in spermatocytes, possibly as a defense mechanism against insertions into unpaired chromatin. In addition to current sex chromosomes, Drosophila has a small gene-poor X-chromosome relic (4th) that re-acquired autosomal status. Here we use single cell RNA-Seq on fly larvae to demonstrate that the single X and pair of 4th chromosomes are specifically inactivated in primary spermatocytes, based on measuring all genes or a set of broadly expressed genes in testis we identified. In contrast, genes on the single Y chromosome become maximally active in primary spermatocytes. Reduced X transcript levels are due to failed activation of RNA-Polymerase-II by phosphorylation of Serine 2 and 5.

Impact of Wolbachia infection on Drosophila female germline stem cells

Wolbachia pipientis, one of the most dominant insect-symbiotic bacteria, highjacks the female germline of insects for its own propagation across host generations. Such strict dependence on female gametes in trans-generational propagation has driven Wolbachia to devise ingenious strategies to enhance female fertility. In Drosophila melanogaster females with female-sterile mutant alleles of the master sex-determining gene Sex-lethal (Sxl), Wolbachia colonizing female germline stem cells (GSCs) support the maintenance of GSCs, thereby rescuing the defective ovarian development. In the germ cell cytoplasm, Wolbachia are often found in proximity to ribonucleoprotein-complex processing bodies (P bodies), where the Wolbachia-derived protein TomO interacts with RNAs encoding Nanos and Orb proteins, which support the GSC maintenance and oocyte polarization, respectively. Thus, manipulation of host RNA is the key to successful vertical transmission of Wolbachia.

A role for triglyceride lipase brummer in the regulation of sex differences in Drosophila fat storage and breakdown

Triglycerides are the major form of stored fat in all animals. One important determinant of whole-body fat storage is whether an animal is male or female. Here, we use Drosophila, an established model for studies on triglyceride metabolism, to gain insight into the genes and physiological mechanisms that contribute to sex differences in fat storage. Our analysis of triglyceride storage and breakdown in both sexes identified a role for triglyceride lipase brummer (bmm) in the regulation of sex differences in triglyceride homeostasis. Normally, male flies have higher levels of bmm mRNA both under normal culture conditions and in response to starvation, a lipolytic stimulus. We find that loss of bmm largely eliminates the sex difference in triglyceride storage and abolishes the sex difference in triglyceride breakdown via strongly male-biased effects. Although we show that bmm function in the fat body affects whole-body triglyceride levels in both sexes, in males, we identify an additional role for bmm function in the somatic cells of the gonad and in neurons in the regulation of whole-body triglyceride homeostasis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that lipid droplets are normally present in both the somatic cells of the male gonad and in neurons, revealing a previously unrecognized role for bmm function, and possibly lipid droplets, in these cell types in the regulation of whole-body triglyceride homeostasis. Taken together, our data reveal a role for bmm function in the somatic cells of the gonad and in neurons in the regulation of male–female differences in fat storage and breakdown and identify bmm as a link between the regulation of triglyceride homeostasis and biological sex.

An investigation of the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying sex differences in fat storage and breakdown in the fruit fly Drosophila identifies previously unrecognized sex- and cell type-specific roles for the conserved triglyceride lipase brummer.

Drosophila Heterochromatin Stabilization Requires the Zinc-Finger Protein Small Ovary

Heterochromatin-mediated repression is essential for controlling the expression of transposons and for coordinated cell type-specific gene regulation. The small ovary (sov) locus was identified in a screen for female-sterile mutations in Drosophila melanogaster, and mutants show dramatic ovarian morphogenesis defects. We show that the null sov phenotype is lethal and map the locus to the uncharacterized gene CG14438, which encodes a nuclear zinc-finger protein that colocalizes with the essential Heterochromatin Protein 1 (HP1a). We demonstrate Sov functions to repress inappropriate gene expression in the ovary, silence transposons, and suppress position-effect variegation in the eye, suggesting a central role in heterochromatin stabilization.

FlyAtlas 2: a new version of the Drosophila melanogaster expression atlas with RNA-Seq, miRNA-Seq and sex-specific data

FlyAtlas 2 (www.flyatlas2.org) is part successor, part complement to the FlyAtlas database and web application for studying the expression of the genes of Drosophila melanogaster in different tissues of adults and larvae. Although generated in the same lab with the same fly line raised on the same diet as FlyAtlas, the FlyAtlas2 resource employs a completely new set of expression data based on RNA-Seq, rather than microarray analysis, and so it allows the user to obtain information for the expression of different transcripts of a gene. Furthermore, the data for somatic tissues are now available for both male and female adult flies, allowing studies of sexual dimorphism. Gene coverage has been extended by the inclusion of microRNAs and many of the RNA genes included in Release 6 of the Drosophila reference genome. The web interface has been modified to accommodate the extra data, but at the same time has been adapted for viewing on small mobile devices. Users also have access to the RNA-Seq reads displayed alongside the annotated Drosophila genome in the (external) UCSC browser, and are able to link out to the previous FlyAtlas resource to compare the data obtained by RNA-Seq with that obtained using microarrays.

Transcripts immunoprecipitated with Sxl protein in primordial germ cells of Drosophila embryos

In Drosophila, Sex lethal (Sxl), an RNA binding protein, is required for induction of female sexual identity in both somatic and germline cells. Although the Sxl-dependent feminizing pathway in the soma was previously elucidated, the downstream targets for Sxl in the germline remained elusive. To identify these target genes, we selected transcripts associated with Sxl in primordial germ cells (PGCs) of embryos using RNA immunoprecipitation coupled to sequencing (RIP-seq) analysis. A total of 308 transcripts encoded by 282 genes were obtained. Seven of these genes, expressed at higher levels in PGCs as determined by microarray and in situ hybridization analyses, were subjected to RNAi-mediated functional analyses. Knockdown of Neos, Kap-alpha3, and CG32075 throughout germline development caused gonadal dysgenesis in a sex-dependent manner, and Su(var)2-10 knockdown caused gonadal dysgenesis in both sexes. Moreover, as with knockdown of Sxl, knockdown of Su(var)2-10 in PGCs gave rise to a tumorous phenotype of germline cells in ovaries. Because this phenotype indicates loss of female identity of germline cells, we consider Su(var)2-10 to be a strong candidate target of Sxl in PGCs. Our results represent a first step toward elucidating the Sxl-dependent feminizing pathway in the germline.

Comparative transcriptomic analysis of silkworm Bmovo-1 and wild type silkworm ovary

The detailed molecular mechanism of Bmovo-1 regulation of ovary size is unclear. To uncover the mechanism of Bmovo-1 regulation of ovarian development and oogenesis using RNA-Seq, we compared the transcriptomes of wild type (WT) and Bmovo-1-overexpressing silkworm (silkworm^+Bmovo-1) ovaries. Using a pair-end Illumina Solexa sequencing strategy, 5,296,942 total reads were obtained from silkworm^+Bmovo-1 ovaries and 6,306,078 from WT ovaries. The average read length was about 100 bp. Clean read ratios were 98.79% for silkworm^+Bmovo-1 and 98.87% for WT silkworm ovaries. Comparative transcriptome analysis showed 123 upregulated and 111 downregulated genes in silkworm^+Bmovo-1 ovaries. These differentially expressed genes were enriched in the extracellular and extracellular spaces and involved in metabolism, genetic information processing, environmental information processing, cellular processes and organismal systems. Bmovo-1 overexpression in silkworm ovaries might promote anabolism for ovarian development and oogenesis and oocyte proliferation and transport of nutrients to ovaries by altering nutrient partitioning, which would support ovary development. Excessive consumption of nutrients for ovary development alters nutrient partitioning and deters silk protein synthesis.

Biochemical and functional analysis of Drosophila-sciara chimeric sex-lethal proteins

BACKGROUND

The Drosophila SXL protein controls sex determination and dosage compensation. It is a sex-specific factor controlling splicing of its own Sxl pre-mRNA (auto-regulation), tra pre-mRNA (sex determination) and msl-2 pre-mRNA plus translation of msl-2 mRNA (dosage compensation). Outside the drosophilids, the same SXL protein has been found in both sexes so that, in the non-drosophilids, SXL does not appear to play the key discriminating role in sex determination and dosage compensation that it plays in Drosophila. Comparison of SXL proteins revealed that its spatial organisation is conserved, with the RNA-binding domains being highly conserved, whereas the N- and C-terminal domains showing significant variation. This manuscript focuses on the evolution of the SXL protein itself and not on regulation of its expression.

METHODOLOGY

Drosophila-Sciara chimeric SXL proteins were produced. Sciara SXL represents the non-sex-specific function of ancient SXL in the non-drosophilids from which presumably Drosophila SXL evolved. Two questions were addressed. Did the Drosophila SXL protein have affected their functions when their N- and C-terminal domains were replaced by the corresponding ones of Sciara? Did the Sciara SXL protein acquire Drosophila sex-specific functions when the Drosophila N- and C-terminal domains replaced those of Sciara? The chimeric SXL proteins were analysed in vitro to study their binding affinity and cooperative properties, and in vivo to analyse their effect on sex determination and dosage compensation by producing Drosophila flies that were transgenic for the chimeric SXL proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

The sex-specific properties of extant Drosophila SXL protein depend on its global structure rather than on a specific domain. This implies that the modifications, mainly in the N- and C-terminal domains, that occurred in the SXL protein during its evolution within the drosophilid lineage represent co-evolutionary changes that determine the appropriate folding of SXL to carry out its sex-specific functions.

Gene duplication and the genome distribution of sex-biased genes

In species that have two sexes, a single genome encodes two morphs, as each sex can be thought of as a distinct morph. This means that the same set of genes are differentially expressed in the different sexes. Many questions emanate from this statement. What proportion of genes contributes to sexual dimorphism? How do they contribute to sexual dimorphism? How is sex-biased expression achieved? Which sex and what tissues contribute the most to sex-biased expression? Do sex-biased genes have the same evolutionary patterns as nonbiased genes? We review the current data on sex-biased expression in species with heteromorphic sex chromosomes and comment on the most important hypotheses suggested to explain the origin, evolution, and distribution patterns of sex-biased genes. In this perspective we emphasize how gene duplication serves as an important molecular mechanism to resolve genomic clashes and genetic conflicts by generating sex-biased genes, often sex-specific genes, and contributes greatly to the underlying genetic basis of sexual dimorphism.

Drosophila Sex lethal gene initiates female development in germline progenitors

Sex determination in the Drosophila germ line is regulated by both the sex of the surrounding soma and cell-autonomous cues. How primordial germ cells (PGCs) initiate sexual development via cell-autonomous mechanisms is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that, in Drosophila, the Sex lethal (Sxl) gene acts autonomously in PGCs to induce female development. Sxl is transiently expressed in PGCs during their migration to the gonads; this expression, which was detected only in XX PGCs, is necessary for PGCs to assume a female fate. Ectopic expression of Sxl in XY PGCs was sufficient to induce them to enter oogenesis and produce functional eggs when transplanted into an XX host. Our data provide powerful evidence that Sxl initiates female germline fate during sexual development.

Evolution of a tissue-specific splicing network

Alternative splicing of precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) is a strategy employed by most eukaryotes to increase transcript and proteomic diversity. Many metazoan splicing factors are members of multigene families, with each member having different functions. How these highly related proteins evolve unique properties has been unclear. Here we characterize the evolution and function of a new Drosophila splicing factor, termed LS2 (Large Subunit 2), that arose from a gene duplication event of dU2AF(50), the large subunit of the highly conserved heterodimeric general splicing factor U2AF (U2-associated factor). The quickly evolving LS2 gene has diverged from the splicing-promoting, ubiquitously expressed dU2AF(50) such that it binds a markedly different RNA sequence, acts as a splicing repressor, and is preferentially expressed in testes. Target transcripts of LS2 are also enriched for performing testes-related functions. We therefore propose a path for the evolution of a new splicing factor in Drosophila that regulates specific pre-mRNAs and contributes to transcript diversity in a tissue-specific manner.

Germline-dependent gene expression in distant non-gonadal somatic tissues of Drosophila

Background

Drosophila females commit tremendous resources to egg production and males produce some of the longest sperm in the animal kingdom. We know little about the coordinated regulation of gene expression patterns in distant somatic tissues that support the developmental cost of gamete production.

Results

We determined the non-gonadal gene expression patterns of Drosophila females and males with or without a germline. Our results show that germline-dependent expression in the non-gonadal soma is extensive. Interestingly, gene expression patterns and hormone titers are consistent with a hormone axis between the gonads and non-gonadal soma.

Conclusions

The germline has a long-range influence on gene expression in the Drosophila sexes. We suggest that this is the result of a germline/soma hormonal axis.

Identifying sexual differentiation genes that affect Drosophila life span

Background

Sexual differentiation often has significant effects on life span and aging phenotypes. For example, males and females of several species have different life spans, and genetic and environmental manipulations that affect life span often have different magnitude of effect in males versus females. Moreover, the presence of a differentiated germ-line has been shown to affect life span in several species, including Drosophila and C. elegans.

Methods

Experiments were conducted to determine how alterations in sexual differentiation gene activity might affect the life span of Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila females heterozygous for the tudor[1] mutation produce normal offspring, while their homozygous sisters produce offspring that lack a germ line. To identify additional sexual differentiation genes that might affect life span, the conditional transgenic system Geneswitch was employed, whereby feeding adult flies or developing larvae the drug RU486 causes the over-expression of selected UAS-transgenes.

Results

In this study germ-line ablation caused by the maternal tudor[1] mutation was examined in a long-lived genetic background, and was found to increase life span in males but not in females, consistent with previous reports. Fitting the data to a Gompertz-Makeham model indicated that the maternal tudor[1] mutation increases the life span of male progeny by decreasing age-independent mortality. The Geneswitch system was used to screen through several UAS-type and EP-type P element mutations in genes that regulate sexual differentiation, to determine if additional sex-specific effects on life span would be obtained. Conditional over-expression of transformer female isoform (traF) during development produced male adults with inhibited sexual differentiation, however this caused no significant change in life span. Over-expression of doublesex female isoform (dsxF) during development was lethal to males, and produced a limited number of female escapers, whereas over-expression of dsxF specifically in adults greatly reduced both male and female life span. Similarly, over-expression of fruitless male isoform A (fru-MA) during development was lethal to both males and females, whereas over-expression of fru-MA in adults greatly reduced both male and female life span.

Conclusion

Manipulation of sexual differentiation gene expression specifically in the adult, after morphological sexual differentiation is complete, was still able to affect life span. In addition, by manipulating gene expression during development, it was possible to significantly alter morphological sexual differentiation without a significant effect on adult life span. The data demonstrate that manipulation of sexual differentiation pathway genes either during development or in adults can affect adult life span.

Gene expression during Drosophila melanogaster egg development before and after reproductive diapause

Background

Despite the importance of egg development to the female life cycle in Drosophila, global patterns of gene expression have not been examined in detail, primarily due to the difficulty in isolating synchronised developmental stages in sufficient quantities for gene expression profiling. Entry into vitellogenesis is a key stage of oogenesis and by forcing females into reproductive diapause we are able to arrest oogenesis at the pre-vitellogenic stages. Releasing females from diapause allows collection of relatively synchronous developing egg populations and an investigation of some of the transcriptional dynamics apparent before and after reproductive diapause.

Results

Focusing on gender-biased transcription, we identified mechanisms of egg development suppressed during reproductive dormancy as well as other molecular changes unique to the diapausing female. A microarray based analysis generated a set of 3565 transcripts with at least 2-fold greater expression in females as compared to control males, 1392 such changes were biased during reproductive dormancy. In addition, we also detect 1922 up-regulated transcriptional changes after entry into vitellogenesis, which were classified into discrete blocks of co-expression. We discuss some of the regulatory aspects apparent after re-initiation of egg development, exploring the underlying functions, maternal contribution and evolutionary conservation of co-expression patterns involved in egg production.

Conclusion

Although much of the work we present is descriptive, fundamental aspects of egg development and gender-biased transcription can be derived from our time-series experiment. We believe that our dataset will facilitate further exploration of the developmental and evolutionary characteristics of oogenesis as well as the nature of reproductive arrest in Drosophila.

Sex-lethal facilitates the transition from germline stem cell to committed daughter cell in the Drosophila ovary

In Drosophila, the female-specific SEX-LETHAL (SXL) protein is required for oogenesis, but how Sxl interfaces with the genetic circuitry controlling oogenesis remains unknown. Here we use an allele of sans fille (snf) that specifically eliminates SXL protein in germ cells to carry out a detailed genetic and cell biological analysis of the resulting ovarian tumor phenotype. We find that tumor growth requires both Cyclin B and zero population growth, demonstrating that these mutant cells retain at least some of the essential growth-control mechanisms used by wild-type germ cells. Using a series of molecular markers, we establish that while the tumor often contains at least one apparently bona fide germline stem cell, the majority of cells exhibit an intermediate fate between a stem cell and its daughter cell fated to differentiate. In addition, snf tumors misexpress a select group of testis-enriched markers, which, remarkably, are also misexpressed in ovarian tumors that arise from the loss of bag of marbles (bam). Results of genetic epistasis experiments further reveal that bam's differentiation-promoting function depends on Sxl. Together these data demonstrate a novel role for Sxl in the lineage progression from stem cell to committed daughter cell and suggest a model in which Sxl partners with bam to facilitate this transition.

Effects of Wolbachia infection and ovarian tumor mutations on Sex-lethal germline functioning in Drosophila

Wolbachia is a ubiquitous intracellular endosymbiont of invertebrates. Surprisingly, infection of Drosophila melanogaster by this maternally inherited bacterium restores fertility to females carrying ovarian tumor (cystocyte overproliferation) mutant alleles of the Drosophila master sex-determination gene, Sex-lethal (Sxl). We scanned the Drosophila genome for effects of infection on transcript levels in wild-type previtellogenic ovaries that might be relevant to this suppression of female-sterile Sxl mutants by Wolbachia. Yolk protein gene transcript levels were most affected, being reduced by infection, but no genes showed significantly more than a twofold difference. The yolk gene effect likely signals a small, infection-induced delay in egg chamber maturation unrelated to suppression. In a genetic study of the Wolbachia-Sxl interaction, we established that germline Sxl controls meiotic recombination as well as cystocyte proliferation, but Wolbachia only influences the cystocyte function. In contrast, we found that mutations in ovarian tumor (otu) interfere with both Sxl germline functions. We were led to otu through characterization of a spontaneous dominant suppressor of the Wolbachia-Sxl interaction, which proved to be an otu mutation. Clearly Sxl and otu work together in the female germline. These studies of meiosis in Sxl mutant females revealed that X chromosome recombination is considerably more sensitive than autosomal recombination to reduced Sxl activity.

Sexual back talk with evolutionary implications: stimulation of the Drosophila sex-determination gene sex-lethal by its target transformer

We describe a surprising new regulatory relationship between two key genes of the Drosophila sex-determination gene hierarchy, Sex-lethal (Sxl) and transformer (tra). A positive autoregulatory feedback loop for Sxl was known to maintain somatic cell female identity by producing SXL-F protein to continually instruct the target gene transformer (tra) to make its feminizing product, TRA-F. We discovered the reciprocal regulatory effect by studying genetically sensitized females: TRA-F from either maternal or zygotic tra expression stimulates Sxl-positive autoregulation. We found female-specific tra mRNA in eggs as predicted by this tra maternal effect, but not predicted by the prevailing view that tra has no germline function. TRA-F stimulation of Sxl seems to be direct at some point, since Sxl harbors highly conserved predicted TRA-F binding sites. Nevertheless, TRA-F stimulation of Sxl autoregulation in the gonadal soma also appears to have a cell-nonautonomous aspect, unprecedented for somatic Sxl regulation. This tra-Sxl retrograde regulatory circuit has evolutionary implications. In some Diptera, tra occupies Sxl's position as the gene that epigenetically maintains female identity through direct positive feedback on pre-mRNA splicing. The tra-mediated Sxl feedback in Drosophila may be a vestige of regulatory redundancy that facilitated the evolutionary transition from tra to Sxl as the master sex switch.

The Mysteries of Sexual Identity: The Germ Cell's Perspective

Animal germ cells differentiate as sperm or eggs, depending on their sex. Somatic signals tell germ cells whether they reside in a male or female body, but how do germ cells interpret those external cues to acquire their own sexual identity? A critical aspect of a germ cell's sexual puzzle is that the sperm/egg decision is closely linked to the cell-cycle decision between mitosis and meiosis. Molecular studies have begun to tease apart the regulators of both decisions, an essential step toward understanding the regulatory logic of this fundamental question of germ cell biology.

Drosophila melanogaster male somatic cells feminized solely by TraF can collaborate with female germ cells to make functional eggs

Female differentiation of Drosophila germ cells is induced by cell-nonautonomous signals generated in the gonadal soma that work with germ-cell-autonomous signals determined by germ-cell X chromosome dose. Generation of the nonautonomous feminizing signals was known to involve female-specific protein encoded by the master sex-determination gene Sex-lethal (Sxl) acting on its switch-gene target transformer (tra) to produce Tra(F) protein. However, it was not known whether Sxl's action on tra alone would suffice to trigger a fully feminizing nonautonomous signal. We developed a constitutively feminizing tra transgene that allowed us to answer this question. In gynanders (XX//XO mosaics) feminized by this Tra(F) transgene, functionally Sxl- haplo-X (chromosomally male) somatic cells collaborated successfully with diplo-X (chromosomally female) germ cells to make functional eggs. The fertility of such gynanders shows not only that Tra(F) is sufficient to elicit a fully feminizing nonautonomous signal, but also that haplo-X somatic cells can execute all other somatic functions required for oogenesis, despite the fact that their genome is not expected to be dosage compensated for such diplo-X-specific functions. The unexpected observation that some Tra(F)-feminized gynanders failed to lay their eggs showed there to be diplo-X cells outside the gonad for which Tra(F)-feminized haplo-X cells cannot substitute.

The control of sexual identity in the Drosophila germline

Whether to be male or female is a critical decision in development. Nowhere is this more important than in the germ cells, which must produce either the sperm or eggs necessary for the perpetuation of the species. How does a germ cell make this decision and how is it executed? One thing that is clear is that this process is very different in germ cells compared with other cells of the embryo. Here, we explore how sexual identity is established in the Drosophila germline, how this affects other aspects of germ cell development and what studies in Drosophila can teach us about mammalian germ cells.

Global analysis of X-chromosome dosage compensation

Background

Drosophila melanogaster females have two X chromosomes and two autosome sets (XX;AA), while males have a single X chromosome and two autosome sets (X;AA). Drosophila male somatic cells compensate for a single copy of the X chromosome by deploying male-specific-lethal (MSL) complexes that increase transcription from the X chromosome. Male germ cells lack MSL complexes, indicating that either germline X-chromosome dosage compensation is MSL-independent, or that germ cells do not carry out dosage compensation.

Results

To investigate whether dosage compensation occurs in germ cells, we directly assayed X-chromosome transcripts using DNA microarrays and show equivalent expression in XX;AA and X;AA germline tissues. In X;AA germ cells, expression from the single X chromosome is about twice that of a single autosome. This mechanism ensures balanced X-chromosome expression between the sexes and, more importantly, it ensures balanced expression between the single X chromosome and the autosome set. Oddly, the inactivation of an X chromosome in mammalian females reduces the effective X-chromosome dose and means that females face the same X-chromosome transcript deficiency as males. Contrary to most current dosage-compensation models, we also show increased X-chromosome expression in X;AA and XX;AA somatic cells of Caenorhabditis elegans and mice.

Conclusion

Drosophila germ cells compensate for X-chromosome dose. This occurs by equilibrating X-chromosome and autosome expression in X;AA cells. Increased expression of the X chromosome in X;AA individuals appears to be phylogenetically conserved.

The Drosophila ovarian and testis stem cell niches: similar somatic stem cells and signals

The stem cell niches at the apex of Drosophila ovaries and testes have been viewed as distinct in two major respects. While both contain germline stem cells, the testis niche also contains "cyst progenitor" stem cells, which divide to produce somatic cells that encase developing germ cells. Moreover, while both niches utilize BMP signaling, the testis niche requires a key JAK/STAT signal. We now show, by lineage marking, that the ovarian niche also contains a second type of stem cell. These "escort stem cells" morphologically resemble testis cyst progenitor cells and their daughters encase developing cysts before undergoing apoptosis at the time of follicle formation. In addition, we show that JAK/STAT signaling also plays a critical role in ovarian niche function, and acts within escort cells. These observations reveal striking similarities in the stem cell niches of male and female gonads, and suggest that they are largely governed by common mechanisms.

The expression profile of purified Drosophila germline stem cells

We developed a method to highly purify germline stem cells (GSCs) from the Drosophila ovary, one of the best understood types of adult stem cell. GSCs express variant isoforms of general transcriptional components, translation initiation factors, and several variant ribosomal proteins, including RpL22, a protein enriched in several mammalian stem cells. These novel isoforms may help regulate stem cell gene expression because a reversion assay indicated that at least four were specific for GSCs. By comparative analysis, we identify additional genes enriched in GSCs, including Psc, the Drosophila homolog of the Bmi-1 Polycomb group gene, as well as genes that may delay cytokinesis in pre-meiotic germ cells. By comparing GSCs arrested by BMP over-expression and bam mutation, we hypothesize that mRNA utilization is modulated in differentiating GSC daughters. Our findings suggest that Drosophila and mammalian stem cells utilize at least two regulatory mechanisms in common.

Somatic control of germline sexual development is mediated by the JAK/STAT pathway

Germ cells must develop along distinct male or female paths to produce the sperm or eggs required for sexual reproduction. In both mouse and Drosophila, the sexual identity of germ cells is influenced by the sex of the surrounding somatic tissue (for example, refs 1, 2, reviewed in refs 3, 4); however, little is known about how the soma controls germline sex determination. Here we show that the janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway provides a sex-specific signal from the soma to the germ line in Drosophila embryonic gonads. The somatic gonad expresses a JAK/STAT ligand, unpaired (upd), in a male-specific manner, and activates the JAK/STAT pathway in male germ cells at the time of gonad formation. Furthermore, the JAK/STAT pathway is necessary for male-specific germ cell behaviour during early gonad development, and is sufficient to activate aspects of male germ cell behaviour in female germ cells. Our findings provide direct evidence that the JAK/STAT pathway mediates a key signal from the somatic gonad that regulates male germline sexual development.

The gene Sex-lethal of the Sciaridae family (order Diptera, suborder Nematocera) and its phylogeny in dipteran insects

This article reports the cloning and characterization of the gene homologous to Sex-lethal (Sxl) of Drosophila melanogaster from Sciara coprophila, Rhynchosciara americana, and Trichosia pubescens. This gene plays the key role in controlling sex determination and dosage compensation in D. melanogaster. The Sxl gene of the three species studied produces a single transcript encoding a single protein in both males and females. Comparison of the Sxl proteins of these Nematocera insects with those of the Brachycera showed their two RNA-binding domains (RBD) to be highly conserved, whereas significant variation was observed in both the N- and C-terminal domains. The great majority of nucleotide changes in the RBDs were synonymous, indicating that purifying selection is acting on them. In both sexes of the three Nematocera insects, the Sxl protein colocalized with transcription-active regions dependent on RNA polymerase II but not on RNA polymerase I. Together, these results indicate that Sxl does not appear to play a discriminatory role in the control of sex determination and dosage compensation in nematocerans. Thus, in the phylogenetic lineage that gave rise to the drosophilids, evolution coopted for the Sxl gene, modified it, and converted it into the key gene controlling sex determination and dosage compensation. At the same time, however, certain properties of the recruited ancestral Sxl gene were beneficial, and these are maintained in the evolved Sxl gene, allowing it to exert its sex-determining and dose compensation functions in Drosophila.

Core promoter sequences contribute to ovo-B regulation in the Drosophila melanogaster germline

Utilization of tightly linked ovo-A vs. ovo-B germline promoters results in the expression of OVO-A and OVO-B, C(2)H(2) transcription factors with different N -termini, and different effects on target gene transcription and on female germline development. We show that two sex-determination signals, the X chromosome number within the germ cells and a female soma, differentially regulate ovo-B and ovo-A. We have previously shown that OVO regulates ovarian tumor transcription by binding the transcription start site. We have explored the regulation of the ovo-B promoter using an extensive series of transgenic reporter gene constructs to delimit cis-regulatory sequences as assayed in wild-type and sex-transformed flies and flies with altered ovo dose. Minimum regulated expression of ovo-B requires a short region flanking the transcription start site, suggesting that the ovo-B core promoter bears regulatory information in addition to a "basal" activity. In support of this idea, the core promoter region binds distinct factors in ovary and testis extracts, but not in soma extracts, suggesting that regulatory complexes form at the start site. This idea is further supported by the evolutionarily conserved organization of OVO binding sites at or near the start sites of ovo loci in other flies.

A survey of ovary-, testis-, and soma-biased gene expression in Drosophila melanogaster adults

A global analysis of sex-biased transcription in Drosophila shows extensive differential expression between the sexes. Most sex-differential expression is due to germ cells and nearly all genes with germline expression show sex-bias.

Background

Sexual dimorphism results in the formation of two types of individuals with specialized reproductive roles and is most evident in the germ cells and gonads.

Results

We have undertaken a global analysis of transcription between the sexes using a 31,464 element FlyGEM microarray to determine what fraction of the genome shows sex-biased expression, what tissues express these genes, the predicted functions of these genes, and where these genes map onto the genome. Females and males (both with and without gonads), dissected testis and ovary, females and males with genetically ablated germlines, and sex-transformed flies were sampled.

Conclusions

Using any of a number of criteria, we find extensive sex-biased expression in adults. The majority of cases of sex differential gene expression are attributable to the germ cells. There is also a large class of genes with soma-biased expression. There is little germline-biased expression indicating that nearly all genes with germline expression also show sex-bias. Monte Carlo simulations show that some genes with sex-biased expression are non-randomly distributed in the genome.

Ovarian cystocytes can repopulate the embryonic germ line and produce functional gametes

Ovarian tumors are formed either in the absence of Bam (bag-of-marbles) in germ-line cells or the overexpression of Dpp (decapentaplegic) in ovarian somatic cells. These tumor cells contain spectrosomes characteristic of ovarian germ-line stem cells and the immediate descendents called cystoblasts. We show that pole cells can successfully populate the gonad after transplantation to the dorsal mesoderm of host embryos following germ-band extension. By using this approach, we demonstrate that bam- cells can populate the gonad and become established as germ-line stem cells. Tumor cells containing the wild-type bam gene under heat shock transcriptional control are able to produce functional oocytes. Thus, stem cells/cystoblasts of the adult ovary are capable of forming stem cells in the embryonic ovary and recapitulating the development of the female germ line.

RNA binding protein sex-lethal (Sxl) and control of Drosophila sex determination and dosage compensation

In the past two decades, scientists have elucidated the molecular mechanisms behind Drosophila sex determination and dosage compensation. These two processes are controlled essentially by two different sets of genes, which have in common a master regulatory gene, Sex-lethal (Sxl). Sxl encodes one of the best-characterized members of the family of RNA binding proteins. The analysis of different mechanisms involved in the regulation of the three identified Sxl target genes (Sex-lethal itself, transformer, and male specific lethal-2) has contributed to a better understanding of translation repression, as well as constitutive and alternative splicing. Studies using the Drosophila system have identified the features of the protein that contribute to its target specificity and regulatory functions. In this article, we review the existing data concerning Sxl protein, its biological functions, and the regulation of its target genes.

Paucity of genes on the Drosophila X chromosome showing male-biased expression

Sex chromosomes are primary determinants of sexual dimorphism in many organisms. These chromosomes are thought to arise via the divergence of an ancestral autosome pair and are almost certainly influenced by differing selection in males and females. Exploring how sex chromosomes differ from autosomes is highly amenable to genomic analysis. We examined global gene expression in Drosophila melanogaster and report a dramatic underrepresentation of X-chromosome genes showing high relative expression in males. Using comparative genomics, we find that these same X-chromosome genes are exceptionally poorly conserved in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. These data indicate that the X chromosome is a disfavored location for genes selectively expressed in males.