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Tripodi L, Vitale M, Cerullo V, Pastore L. Oncolytic Adenoviruses for Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052517. [PMID: 33802281 PMCID: PMC7959120 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many immuno-therapeutic strategies are currently being developed to fight cancer. In this scenario, oncolytic adenoviruses (Onc.Ads) have an interesting role for their peculiar tumor selectivity, safety, and transgene-delivery capability. The major strength of the Onc.Ads is the extraordinary immunogenicity that leads to a strong T-cell response, which, together with the possibility of the delivery of a therapeutic transgene, could be more effective than current strategies. In this review, we travel in the adenovirus (Ads) and Onc.Ads world, focusing on a variety of strategies that can enhance Onc.Ads antitumoral efficacy, passing through tumor microenvironment modulation. Onc.Ads-based therapeutic strategies constitute additional weapons in the fight against cancer and appear to potentiate conventional and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs)-based therapies leading to a promising scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorella Tripodi
- SEMM European School for Molecular Medicine, 20123 Milano, Italy;
- CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate, 80145 Naples, Italy;
| | - Maria Vitale
- CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate, 80145 Naples, Italy;
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli Federico II, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Cerullo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli Federico II, 80131 Napoli, Italy
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence: (V.C.); (L.P.); Tel.: +358-29-4159328 (V.C.); +39-0813737885 (L.P.)
| | - Lucio Pastore
- CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate, 80145 Naples, Italy;
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli Federico II, 80131 Napoli, Italy
- Correspondence: (V.C.); (L.P.); Tel.: +358-29-4159328 (V.C.); +39-0813737885 (L.P.)
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Helper-dependent adenovirus-mediated gene transfer of a secreted LDL receptor/transferrin chimeric protein reduces aortic atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-deficient mice. Gene Ther 2019; 26:121-130. [PMID: 30700805 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-019-0061-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a genetic hyperlipidemia characterized by elevated concentrations of plasma LDL cholesterol. Statins are not always effective for the treatment of FH patients; unresponsive patients have poor prognosis and rely on LDL apheresis. In the past, we developed safe and effective gene therapy strategies for the expression of anti-atherogenic proteins using PEGylated helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vectors. We recently developed a HD-Ad vector for the expression of the soluble form of the extracellular portion of the human LDL receptor (LDLR) fused with a rabbit transferrin dimer (LDLR-TF). We evaluated the efficacy of the LDLR-TF chimeric protein in CHOLDLA7, a cell line lacking LDLR expression, restoring the ability to uptake LDL. Subsequently, we administered intravenously 1 × 10E13 vp/kg of this vector in LDLR-deficient mice and observed amelioration of lipid profile and reduction of aortic atherosclerosis. Finally, we studied LDL distribution after HD-Ad vector-mediated expression of LDLR-TF in LDLR-deficient mice and found LDL accumulation in liver, and in heart and intestine. These results support the possibility of lowering LDL-C levels and reducing aortic atherosclerosis using a secreted therapeutic transgene; the present strategy potentially can be modified and adapted to non-systemic gene transfer with expression of the secreted chimeric protein in muscle or other tissues. Intramuscular or local administration strategies could improve the safety profile of this strategy and facilitate applicability.
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Leggiero E, Astone D, Cerullo V, Lombardo B, Mazzaccara C, Labruna G, Sacchetti L, Salvatore F, Croyle M, Pastore L. PEGylated helper-dependent adenoviral vector expressing human Apo A-I for gene therapy in LDLR-deficient mice. Gene Ther 2013; 20:1124-30. [PMID: 23883962 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2013.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Revised: 05/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vectors have great potential for gene therapy applications; however, their administration induces acute toxicity that impairs safe clinical applications. We previously observed that PEGylation of HD-Ad vectors strongly reduces the acute response in murine and primate models. To evaluate whether PEGylated HD-Ad vectors combine reduced toxicity with the correction of pathological phenotypes, we administered an HD-Ad vector expressing the human apolipoprotein A-I (hApoA-I) to low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-receptor-deficient mice (a model for familial hypercholesterolemia) fed a high-cholesterol diet. Mice were treated with high doses of HD-Ad-expressing apo A-I or its PEGylated version. Twelve weeks later, LDL levels were lower and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels higher in mice treated with either of the vectors than in untreated mice. After terminal killing, the areas of atherosclerotic plaques were much smaller in the vector-treated mice than in the control animals. Moreover, the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines was lower and consequently the toxicity profile better in mice treated with PEGylated vector than in mice treated with the unmodified vector. This finding indicates that the reduction in toxicity resulting from PEGylation of HD-Ad vectors does not impair the correction of pathological phenotypes. It also supports the clinical potential of these vectors for the correction of genetic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Leggiero
- 1] CEINGE-Biotecnologie Avanzate, Napoli, Italy [2] Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli 'Federico II', Napoli, Italy
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Wonganan P, Clemens CC, Brasky K, Pastore L, Croyle MA. Species differences in the pharmacology and toxicology of PEGylated helper-dependent adenovirus. Mol Pharm 2010; 8:78-92. [PMID: 20822161 DOI: 10.1021/mp100216h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Clinically relevant doses of helper-dependent adenoviruses (HDAds) provoke the host response against capsid proteins in primates and rodents. To determine if PEGylation truly affects this, baboons and mice were given either HDAd or PEG-HDAd expressing beta-galactosidase at 5 × 10¹¹ or 3 × 10¹² virus particles per kilogram (vp/kg) by iv infusion. Serum cytokines and blood chemistries were assessed for 96 h. PEG-HDAd reduced IL-6 6-fold in mice and 3-fold in the primate. This vector reduced IL-12 by 50% in both animal models. PEGylation reduced serum transaminases by approximately 50% at each dose in the primate and the mouse. PEGylation did not alter hepatic transduction efficiency in the mouse but did reduce transduction efficiency in the liver and the spleen of primates. Unmodified and PEGylated virus suppressed hepatic CYP3A activity in both animal models. PEGylation doubled the half-life (t(½)) of the virus in the mouse and cut plasma clearance (CL) in half without affecting the half-life in primates. These results suggest that there are notable species-specific differences in the biodistribution of and response to PEG-modified vectors which may be linked to differences in binding properties to coagulation factors, receptor density and tissue architecture in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piyanuch Wonganan
- Division of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, and Institute of Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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5
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Domann FE, Niu G. Detection of Pulmonary Gene Transfer Using Iodide-124/Positron Emission Tomography. Cancer Imaging 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-012374212-4.50032-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Farmen SL, Karp PH, Ng P, Palmer DJ, Koehler DR, Hu J, Beaudet AL, Zabner J, Welsh MJ. Gene transfer of CFTR to airway epithelia: low levels of expression are sufficient to correct Cl- transport and overexpression can generate basolateral CFTR. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005; 289:L1123-30. [PMID: 16085675 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00049.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene transfer of CFTR cDNA to airway epithelia is a promising approach to treat cystic fibrosis (CF). Most gene transfer vectors use strong viral promoters even though the endogenous CFTR promoter is very weak. To learn whether expressing CFTR at a low level in a fraction of cells would correct Cl(-) transport, we mixed freshly isolated wild-type and CF airway epithelial cells in varying proportions and generated differentiated epithelia. Epithelia with approximately 20% wild-type cells generated approximately 70% the transepithelial Cl(-) current of epithelia containing 100% wild-type cells. These data were nearly identical to those previously obtained with CFTR expressed under control of a strong promoter in a CF epithelial cell line. We also tested high level CFTR expression using the very strong cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter as well as the cytokeratin-18 (K18) promoter. In differentiated airway epithelia, the CMV promoter generated 50-fold more transgene expression than the K18 promoter, but the K18 promoter generated more transepithelial Cl(-) current at high vector doses. Using functional studies, we found that with marked overexpression, some CFTR channels were present in the basolateral membrane where they shunted Cl(-) flow, thereby reducing net transepithelial Cl(-) transport. These results suggest that very little CFTR is required in a fraction of CF epithelial cells to complement Cl(-) transport because transepithelial Cl(-) flow is limited at the basolateral membrane. Thus they suggest a broad leeway in promoter strength for correcting the CF gene transfer, although at very high expression levels CFTR may be mislocalized to the basolateral membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara L Farmen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, 500 EMRB, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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Croyle MA, Le HT, Linse KD, Cerullo V, Toietta G, Beaudet A, Pastore L. PEGylated helper-dependent adenoviral vectors: highly efficient vectors with an enhanced safety profile. Gene Ther 2005; 12:579-87. [PMID: 15647765 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Transgene expression from helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vectors is effective and long lasting, but not permanent. Their use is also limited by the host response against capsid proteins that precludes successful gene expression upon readministration. In this report, we test the hypothesis that PEGylation of HD-Ad reduces its toxicity and promotes transgene expression upon readministration. PEGylation did not compromise transduction efficiency in vitro and in vivo and reduced peak serum IL-6 levels two-fold. IL-12 and TNF-alpha levels were reduced three- and seven-fold, respectively. Thrombocytopenia was not detected in mice treated with the PEGylated vector. Serum transaminases were not significantly elevated in mice treated with either vector. Mice immunized with 1 x 10(11) particles of unmodified HD-Ad expressing human alpha-1 antitrypsin (hA1AT) were rechallenged 28 days later with 8 x 10(10) particles of unmodified or PEG-conjugated vector expressing beta-galactosidase. Trace levels of beta-galactosidase (52.23+/-19.2 pg/mg protein) were detected in liver homogenates of mice that received two doses of unmodified HD-Ad. Mice rechallenged with PEGylated HD-Ad produced significant levels of beta-galactosidase (5.1+/-0.4 x 10(5) pg/mg protein, P=0.0001). This suggests that PEGylation of HD-Ad vectors may be appropriate for their safe and efficient use in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Croyle
- College of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmaceutics, The University of Texas at Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Gonzalez-Santos JM, Cao H, Wang A, Koehler DR, Martin B, Navab R, Hu J. A complementation method for functional analysis of mammalian genes. Nucleic Acids Res 2005; 33:e94. [PMID: 15944448 PMCID: PMC1145195 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gni093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Our progress in understanding mammalian gene function has lagged behind that of gene identification. New methods for mammalian gene functional analysis are needed to accelerate the process. In yeast, the powerful genetic shuffle system allows deletion of any chromosomal gene by homologous recombination and episomal expression of a mutant allele in the same cell. Here, we report a method for mammalian cells, which employs a helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vector to synthesize small hairpin (sh) RNAs to knock-down the expression of an endogenous gene by targeting untranslated regions (UTRs). The vector simultaneously expresses an exogenous version of the same gene (wild-type or mutant allele) lacking the UTRs for functional analysis. We demonstrated the utility of the method by using PRPF3, which encodes the human RNA splicing factor Hprp3p. Recently, missense mutations in PRPF3 were found to cause autosomal-dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa, a form of genetic eye diseases affecting the retina. We knocked-down endogenous PRPF3 in multiple cell lines and rescued the phenotype (cell death) with exogenous PRPF3 cDNA, thereby creating a genetic complementation method. Because Ad vectors can efficiently transduce a wide variety of cell types, and many tissues in vivo, this method could have a wide application for gene function studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juana Maria Gonzalez-Santos
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of TorontoToronto, Canada M5S 1A1
| | - Huibi Cao
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of TorontoToronto, Canada M5S 1A1
| | - Anan Wang
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
| | - David R. Koehler
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of TorontoToronto, Canada M5S 1A1
| | - Bernard Martin
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
| | - Roya Navab
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of TorontoToronto, Canada M5S 1A1
| | - Jim Hu
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick ChildrenToronto, Canada M5G 1X8 and
- Department of Paediatrics, University of TorontoToronto, Canada M5S 1A1
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of TorontoToronto, Canada M5S 1A1
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 416 813 6412; Fax: +1 416 813 5771;
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Toietta G, Mane VP, Norona WS, Finegold MJ, Ng P, McDonagh AF, Beaudet AL, Lee B. Lifelong elimination of hyperbilirubinemia in the Gunn rat with a single injection of helper-dependent adenoviral vector. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:3930-5. [PMID: 15753292 PMCID: PMC554836 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0500930102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Crigler-Najjar syndrome is a recessively inherited disorder characterized by severe unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia caused by a deficiency of uridine diphospho-glucuronosyl transferase 1A1. Current therapy relies on phototherapy to prevent kernicterus, but liver transplantation presently is the only permanent cure. Gene therapy is a potential alternative, and recent work has shown that helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vectors, devoid of all viral coding sequences, induce prolonged transgene expression and exhibit significantly less chronic toxicity than early-generation Ad vectors. We used a HD-Ad vector to achieve liver-restricted expression of human uridine diphospho-glucuronosyl transferase 1A1 in the Gunn rat, a model of the human disorder. Total plasma bilirubin levels were reduced from >5.0 mg/dl to <<1.4 mg/dl for >2 yr after a single i.v. administration of vector expressing the therapeutic transgene at a dose of 3 x 10(12) viral particles per kg. HPLC analysis of bile from treated rats showed the presence of bilirubin glucuronides at normal WT levels >2 yr after one injection of vector, and i.v. injection of bilirubins IIIalpha and XIIIalpha in the same animals revealed excess bilirubin-conjugating capacity. There was no significant elevation of liver enzymes (alanine aminotransferase) and only transient, moderate thrombocytopenia after injection of the vector. A clinically significant reduction in serum bilirubin was observed with a dose as low as 6 x 10(11) viral particles per kg. We conclude that complete, long-term correction of hyperbilirubinemia in the Gunn rat model of Crigler-Najjar syndrome can be achieved with one injection of HD-Ad vector and negligible chronic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Toietta
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Dorigo O, Gil JS, Gallaher SD, Tan BT, Castro MG, Lowenstein PR, Calos MP, Berk AJ. Development of a novel helper-dependent adenovirus-Epstein-Barr virus hybrid system for the stable transformation of mammalian cells. J Virol 2004; 78:6556-66. [PMID: 15163748 PMCID: PMC416543 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.12.6556-6566.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) episomes are stably maintained in permissive proliferating cell lines due to EBV nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA-1) protein-mediated replication and segregation. Previous studies showed the ability of EBV episomes to confer long-term transgene expression and correct genetic defects in deficient cells. To achieve quantitative delivery of EBV episomes in vitro and in vivo, we developed a binary helper-dependent adenovirus (HDA)-EBV hybrid system that consists of one HDA vector for the expression of Cre recombinase and a second HDA vector that contains all of the sequences for the EBV episome flanked by loxP sites. Upon coinfection of cells, Cre expressed from the first vector recombined loxP sites on the second vector. The resulting circular EBV episomes expressed a transgene and contained the EBV-derived family of repeats, an EBNA-1 expression cassette, and 19 kb of human DNA that functions as a replication origin in mammalian cells. This HDA-EBV hybrid system transformed 40% of cultured cells. Transgene expression in proliferating cells was observed for over 20 weeks under conditions that selected for the expression of the transgene. In the absence of selection, EBV episomes were lost at a rate of 8 to 10% per cell division. Successful delivery of EBV episomes in vivo was demonstrated in the liver of transgenic mice expressing Cre from the albumin promoter. This novel gene transfer system has the potential to confer long-term episomal transgene expression and therefore to correct genetic defects with reduced vector-related toxicity and without insertional mutagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Dorigo
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California at Los Angeles, 611 Charles E. Young Dr. East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1570, USA
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Koehler DR, Sajjan U, Chow YH, Martin B, Kent G, Tanswell AK, McKerlie C, Forstner JF, Hu J. Protection of Cftr knockout mice from acute lung infection by a helper-dependent adenoviral vector expressing Cftr in airway epithelia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:15364-9. [PMID: 14673110 PMCID: PMC307573 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2436478100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a helper-dependent adenoviral vector for cystic fibrosis lung gene therapy. The vector expresses cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (Cftr) using control elements from cytokeratin 18. The vector expressed properly localized CFTR in cultured cells and in the airway epithelia of mice. Cftr RNA and protein were present in whole lung and bronchioles, respectively, for 28 days after a vector dose. Acute inflammation was minimal to moderate. To test the therapeutic potential of the vector, we challenged mice with a clinical strain of Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc). Cftr knockout mice (but not Cftr+/+ littermates) challenged with Bcc developed severe lung histopathology and had high lung bacteria counts. Cftr knockout mice receiving gene therapy 7 days before Bcc challenge had less severe histopathology, and the number of lung bacteria was reduced to the level seen in Cftr+/+ littermates. These data suggest that gene therapy could benefit cystic fibrosis patients by reducing susceptibility to opportunistic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Koehler
- Programme in Lung Biology Research and Canadian Institutes of Health Research Group in Lung Development, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 1X8
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Lowenstein PR, Suwelack D, Hu J, Yuan X, Jimenez-Dalmaroni M, Goverdhana S, Castro MG. Nonneurotropic adenovirus: a vector for gene transfer to the brain and gene therapy of neurological disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2003; 55:3-64. [PMID: 12968530 PMCID: PMC2902245 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(03)01001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro R Lowenstein
- Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Department of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
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Abstract
Gene therapy as a treatment modality for pulmonary disorders has attracted significant interest over the past decade. Since the initiation of the first clinical trials for cystic fibrosis lung disease using recombinant adenovirus in the early 1990s, the field has encountered numerous obstacles including vector inflammation, inefficient delivery, and vector production. Despite these obstacles, enthusiasm for lung gene therapy remains high. In part, this enthusiasm is fueled through the diligence of numerous researchers whose studies continue to reveal great potential of new gene transfer vectors that demonstrate increased tropism for airway epithelia. Several newly identified serotypes of adeno-associated virus have demonstrated substantial promise in animal models and will likely surface soon in clinical trials. Furthermore, an increased understanding of vector biology has also led to the development of new technologies to enhance the efficiency and selectivity of gene delivery to the lung. Although the promise of gene therapy to the lung has yet to be realized, the recent concentrated efforts in the field that focus on the basic virology of vector development will undoubtedly reap great rewards over the next decade in treating lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Driskell
- Center for Gene Therapy of Cystic Fibrosis and Other Genetic Diseases, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
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