Analysis of neural cell functions in gene knockout mice: electrophysiological investigation of synaptic plasticity in acute hippocampal slices

Tutorials for Electrophysiological Recordings in Neuronal Tissue Engineering

Electrophysiology is a powerful tool to examine cellular functions, but the use of the techniques remains challenging outside of physiology and neuroscience fields. We aim to provide a practical methods guide for electrophysiological recordings to nonexperts in the field to help with the utility of these important research tools. We focus on two techniques that are critical in the context of tissue engineering, whole-cell patch clamp recording for assessing cellular functions and extracellular field potential recording for evaluating network activities. Specific examples are presented to demonstrate how the techniques were applied to tissue engineering studies.

Nampt is required for long-term depression and the function of GluN2B subunit-containing NMDA receptors

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) is an essential coenzyme/cosubstrate for many biological processes in cellular metabolism. The rate-limiting step in the major pathway of mammalian NAD(+) biosynthesis is mediated by nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt). Previously, we showed that mice lacking Nampt in forebrain excitatory neurons (CamKIIαNampt(-/-) mice) exhibited hyperactivity, impaired learning and memory, and reduced anxiety-like behaviors. However, it remained unclear if these functional effects were accompanied by synaptic changes. Here, we show that CamKIIαNampt(-/-) mice have impaired induction of long-term depression (LTD) in the Schaffer collateral pathway, but normal induction of long-term potentiation (LTP), at postnatal day 30. Pharmacological assessments demonstrated that CamKIIαNampt(-/-) mice also display dysfunction of synaptic GluN2B (NR2B)-containing N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) prior to changes in NMDAR subunit expression. These results support a novel, important role for Nampt-mediated NAD(+) biosynthesis in LTD and in the function of GluN2B-containing NMDARs.

Expression of Nampt in hippocampal and cortical excitatory neurons is critical for cognitive function

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) is an enzyme cofactor or cosubstrate in many essential biological pathways. To date, the primary source of neuronal NAD(+) has been unclear. NAD(+) can be synthesized from several different precursors, among which nicotinamide is the substrate predominantly used in mammals. The rate-limiting step in the NAD(+) biosynthetic pathway from nicotinamide is performed by nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt). Here, we tested the hypothesis that neurons use intracellular Nampt-mediated NAD(+) biosynthesis by generating and evaluating mice lacking Nampt in forebrain excitatory neurons (CaMKIIαNampt(-/-) mice). CaMKIIαNampt(-/-) mice showed hippocampal and cortical atrophy, astrogliosis, microgliosis, and abnormal CA1 dendritic morphology by 2-3 months of age. Importantly, these histological changes occurred with altered intrahippocampal connectivity and abnormal behavior; including hyperactivity, some defects in motor skills, memory impairment, and reduced anxiety, but in the absence of impaired sensory processes or long-term potentiation of the Schaffer collateral pathway. These results clearly demonstrate that forebrain excitatory neurons mainly use intracellular Nampt-mediated NAD(+) biosynthesis to mediate their survival and function. Studying this particular NAD(+) biosynthetic pathway in these neurons provides critical insight into their vulnerability to pathophysiological stimuli and the development of therapeutic and preventive interventions for their preservation.

Selective inhibition of phosphodiesterase 5 enhances glutamatergic synaptic plasticity and memory in mice

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) belong to a family of proteins that control metabolism of cyclic nucleotides. Targeting PDE5, for enhancing cellular function, is one of the therapeutic strategies for male erectile dysfunction. We have investigated whether in vivo inhibition of PDE5, which is expressed in several brain regions, will enhance memory and synaptic transmission in the hippocampus of healthy mice. We have found that acute administration of sildenafil, a specific PDE5 inhibitor, enhanced hippocampus-dependent memory tasks. To elucidate the underlying mechanism in the memory enhancement, effects of sildenafil on long-term potentiation (LTP) were measured. The level of LTP was significantly elevated, with concomitant increases in basal synaptic transmission, in mice treated with sildenafil (1 mg/kg/day) for 15 days compared to control mice. These results suggest that moderate PDE5 inhibition enhances memory by increasing synaptic plasticity and transmission in the hippocampus.

Pathway-specific alteration of synaptic plasticity in Tg2576 mice

Various animal models of Alzheimer disease (AD) are characterized by deficits in spatial memory that are causally related to altered synaptic function and impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. In Tg2576 AD mice, we compared LTP in 2 major hippocampal pathways, Schaffer collateral (SC) and mossy fiber (MF) pathways. Whereas LTP was completely abolished in the SC pathway of Tg2576 mice, we found no decrease in LTP induced by stimulation of the MF pathway. In fact, we found that in the MF pathway, LTP was slightly, but significantly, enhanced compared with that in the MF pathway of WT littermates. This pathway-specific impairment of LTP is not attributable to alterations in transmitter release, as indicated by an unaltered paired-pulse ratio. These results suggest that the spatial memory deficits normally seen in AD models arise primarily from LTP impairment at the SC pathway.

AMPA receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity require SQSTM1/p62

SQSTM1/p62 is a multidomain/scaffold for the atypical protein kinase Cs (aPKC). Phosphorylation of AMPA receptors by PKC has been shown to regulate their insertion in the postsynaptic membrane. Here, we directly tested whether p62 could interact with AMPA receptor subunits and influence their trafficking and phosphorylation. GluR1 receptor intracellular loop L2-3 and the ZZ-type zinc finger domain of p62 are essential for the interaction between these two proteins. In this context, both p62 and aPKC-mediated phosphorylation were necessary for surface delivery of the receptor. Our findings reveal that p62 is the first protein identified that interacts with a region of the GluR receptor other than the C-terminal tail. Furthermore, mice deficient in p62 displayed impaired hippocampal CA1 long-term potentiation (LTP), along with diminished surface expression of GluR1 and phosphorylation of S818. Lastly, we identify a conserved sequence (ISExSL) shared by all p62 interacting-aPKC substrates. These findings support a model where p62 interaction and aPKC phosphorylation act together to mediate AMPA receptor trafficking and long-term synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.