An analysis of the natural history of cavernous malformations

Giant cerebral cavernous malformation in a newborn: a rare case report and review of literature

BACKGROUND

Cavernous malformations (CMs), also known as cavernomas or cavernous angiomas, are vascular malformations characterized by sinusoidal spaces lined by endothelial cells. Giant CMs (GCMs) are extremely rare, with limited understanding of their presentation and management. We present a case of symptomatic GCM in a newborn and review the literature on this rare entity.

CASE DESCRIPTION

A 1-month-old newborn presented with focal seizures and signs of increased intracranial pressure. Imaging revealed a massive right frontal-parietal GCM, prompting surgical resection. Histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis of cerebral cavernous malformation. The patient recovered well postoperatively with no neurological deficits.

CONCLUSIONS

GCMs are exceedingly rare in children and have not been reported in newborns until now. Symptoms typically include seizures and mass effects. Gross total resection is the standard treatment, offering favorable outcomes. Further research is needed to understand the natural history and optimal management of GCMs, particularly in newborns, emphasizing the importance of heightened clinical awareness for timely diagnosis and appropriate management.

Assessing the Relationship between Surgical Timing and Postoperative Seizure Outcomes in Cavernoma-Related Epilepsy: A Single-Institution Retrospective Analysis of 63 Patients with a Review of the Literature

Background: Patients with supratentorial cavernous malformations (SCMs) commonly present with seizures. First-line treatments for cavernoma-related epilepsy (CRE) include conservative management (antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)) and surgery. We compared seizure outcomes of CRE patients after early (≤6 months) vs. delayed (>6 months) surgery. Methods: We compared outcomes of CRE patients with SCMs surgically treated at our large-volume cerebrovascular center (1 January 2010-31 July 2020). Patients with 1 sporadic SCM and ≥1-year follow-up were included. Primary outcomes were International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) class 1 seizure freedom and AED independence. Results: Of 63 CRE patients (26 women, 37 men; mean ± SD age, 36.1 ± 14.6 years), 48 (76%) vs. 15 (24%) underwent early (mean ± SD, 2.1 ± 1.7 months) vs. delayed (mean ± SD, 6.2 ± 7.1 years) surgery. Most (32 (67%)) with early surgery presented after 1 seizure; all with delayed surgery had ≥2 seizures. Seven (47%) with delayed surgery had drug-resistant epilepsy. At follow-up (mean ± SD, 5.4 ± 3.3 years), CRE patients with early surgery were more likely to have ILAE class 1 seizure freedom and AED independence than those with delayed surgery (92% (44/48) vs. 53% (8/15), p = 0.002; and 65% (31/48) vs. 33% (5/15), p = 0.03, respectively). Conclusions: Early CRE surgery demonstrated better seizure outcomes than delayed surgery. Multicenter prospective studies are needed to validate these findings.

Case Report: Recurrent pediatric cavernous malformation of the trigeminal nerve

Background

Most cavernous malformations (CM) usually involve the parenchyma and rarely occur in cranial nerves. Recurrence of CM associated with cranial nerves after surgical resection has not been previously reported.

Case description

This paper describes the case of an 11-year-old girl who presented with left otalgia and headache because of a left trigeminal cavernous malformation. She underwent radical resection via a left retrosigmoid approach while sparing the trigeminal nerve. Surveillance imaging at 18 months demonstrated recurrence along the length of the trigeminal nerve into Meckel's cave with significant extension into the middle cerebellar peduncle. Subsequent re-operation via an extended middle fossa approach with anterior petrosectomy enabled complete resection with division of the trigeminal nerve. Postoperatively, she had a transient left facial paresis, and right hemiparesis that resolved within 48 h.

Conclusion

This case highlights the importance of close postoperative surveillance in CM associated with cranial nerves as recurrence after nerve-sparing resection is possible. Surgical treatment due to the morphology of significant recurrence required the use of a complex skull base approach through a new corridor to achieve optimal clinical outcome.

The Brainstem Cavernoma Case Series: A Formula for Surgery and Surgical Technique

Background and Objectives: Cavernous malformations (CM) are vascular malformations with low blood flow. The removal of brainstem CMs (BS) is associated with high surgical morbidity, and there is no general consensus on when to treat deep-seated BS CMs. The aim of this study is to compare the surgical outcomes of a series of deep-seated BS CMs with the surgical outcomes of a series of superficially located BS CMs operated on at the Department of Neurosurgery, College of Tuebingen, Germany. Materials and Methods: A retrospective evaluation was performed using patient charts, surgical video recordings, and outpatient examinations. Factors were identified in which surgical intervention was performed in cases of BS CMs. Preoperative radiological examinations included MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). For deep-seated BS CMs, a voxel-based 3D neuronavigation system and electrophysiological mapping of the brainstem surface were used. Results: A total of 34 consecutive patients with primary superficial (n = 20/58.8%) and deep-seated (n = 14/41.2%) brainstem cavernomas (BS CM) were enrolled in this comparative study. Complete removal was achieved in 31 patients (91.2%). Deep-seated BS CMs: The mean diameter was 14.7 mm (range: 8.3 to 27.7 mm). All but one of these lesions were completely removed. The median follow-up time was 5.8 years. Two patients (5.9%) developed new neurologic deficits after surgery. Superficial BS CMs: The median diameter was 14.9 mm (range: 7.2 to 27.3 mm). All but two of the superficial BS CMs could be completely removed. New permanent neurologic deficits were observed in two patients (5.9%) after surgery. The median follow-up time in this group was 3.6 years. Conclusions: The treatment of BS CMs remains complex. However, the results of this study demonstrate that with less invasive posterior fossa approaches, brainstem mapping, and neuronavigation combined with the use of a blunt "spinal cord" dissection technique, deep-seated BS CMs can be completely removed in selected cases, with good functional outcomes comparable to those of superficial BS CM.

Surgical Outcomes of Symptomatic Intramedullary Spinal Cord Cavernous Malformations: Analysis of Consecutive Cases in a Single Center

OBJECTIVE

Intramedullary spinal cavernous malformations (ISCMs) are rare vascular lesions of the spinal cord with unclear natural history and controversy over treatment. This study aimed to report a series of symptomatic ISCMs underwent microsurgical management to illustrate the natural history, clinical presentation, and surgical outcomes and to evaluate factors associated with hemorrhage events and neurological prognosis.

METHODS

This single-center retrospective study included 29 consecutive patients with whose demographic, symptomology, imaging, neurological, and surgical data were collected. The risk for hemorrhage events and factors affecting surgical outcomes were retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

There were 12 female (41.4%) and 17 male patients (58.6%), with an average age of 45.2 years (range, 17-69 years). The mean size of the lesion was 9.7 mm (range, 3-20 mm). Most patients had a bowel or/and bladder dysfunction symptom (n = 11, 37.9%), followed by sensory deficits (n = 5, 17.2%), gait disturbance (n = 5, 17.2%), pain (n = 4, 13.8%), and weakness (n = 4, 13.8%), most (n = 15, 51.7%) with a chronic onset. All patients received total resection without rehemorrhages after surgical resection in follow-up. Sixty-five point five percent patients (n = 19) improved, 13.8% (n = 4) remained stable, 20.7% (n = 6) got worsen. The overall annual hemorrhage risk was 2.1% per patient-year. A total of 27 hemorrhages occurred in the 18 patients, of which rehemorrhage rate increased to 50.0% (n = 9) with a previous history of hemorrhage. Patients with smaller lesion sizes were more likely to have hemorrhage or rehemorrhage events (p = 0.008). Recurrent hemorrhage of the lesions was a risk factor for neurological outcomes (p = 0.016).

CONCLUSION

The risk of rehemorrhage was significantly increased in symptomatic ISCM patients with a previous history of hemorrhage. Rehemorrhage was a risk factor for neurological outcomes. Patients can benefit from microsurgical treatment to avoid rehemorrhage and further neurological deterioration.

Incidence of Cerebral Cavernous Malformation-Related Epilepsy in Children: A Single Center Survey

INTRODUCTION

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) are rare developmental cerebrovascular malformations. The risk of epilepsy is high in patients with CCMs, but the incidence of epilepsy has not been reported in a pure pediatric population. We herein present 14 pediatric cases of CCMs, including five with CCM-related epilepsy, and examine the incidence of CCM-related epilepsy in this pediatric population.  Methods: Pediatric patients with CCMs who visited our Hospital between November 1, 2001, to September 31, 2020, were retrospectively screened for inclusion, and 14 were enrolled.  Results: Fourteen enrolled patients were divided into two groups based on the presence or absence of CCM-related epilepsy. The "CCM-related epilepsy group" (n = 5) consisted of five males with a median age of 4.2 (range: 0.3-8.5) years at the first visit. The "non-epilepsy group" (n = 9) consisted of seven males and two females with a median age of 3.5 (range: 1.3-11.5) years at the first visit. The prevalence of CCM-related epilepsy at the time of the present analysis was 35.7%. Follow-up periods in CCM-related epilepsy and non-epilepsy groups were 19.3 and 24.9 patient-years, respectively: the incidence was 11.3% per patient-years. The frequency of seizures due to intra-CCM hemorrhage as the primary symptom was significantly higher in the CCM-related epilepsy group than in the non-CCM-related epilepsy group (p = 0.01). Other clinical characteristics, i.e., primary symptoms including vomiting/nausea and spastic paralysis, magnetic resonance imaging findings, including the number or maximum diameter of CCMs, cortical involvement, intra-CCM hemorrhage, and infratentorial lesions, surgical resection, and non-epileptic sequelae, such as motor disability and intellectual disability, did not significantly differ between the groups.  Discussion: The incidence of CCM-related epilepsy in the present study was 11.3% per patient year, higher than in adults. This discrepancy may be attributed to these studies including both adult and pediatric patients, whereas the present study examined a pure pediatric population. The presence of seizures due to intra-CCM hemorrhage as the initial symptom was a risk factor for CCM-related epilepsy in the present study. To elucidate the pathophysiology of CCM-related epilepsy or the reason for its higher incidence in children than in adults, further analyses of a large number of children with CCM-related epilepsy are warranted.

Clinical characteristics and risk factors of cerebral cavernous malformation-related epilepsy

PURPOSE

This study aimed to summarize the clinical characteristics and explore the risk factors for cerebral cavernous malformation (CCM)-related epilepsy (CRE).

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the clinical data of patients with CCM in our cerebral vascular malformations database. Descriptive statistics were used to present the clinical characteristics of CRE patients. Patients were divided into a CRE and a non-CRE group according to clinical presentation. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the risk factors of CRE.

RESULTS

A total of 199 patients with CCM confirmed by postoperative pathological examination were enrolled, 93 of whom were diagnosed with CRE, and 34 patients had drug-resistant epilepsy. The most common seizure type of CRE patients was focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizure (FBTCS), followed by focal impaired awareness motor seizure. All CCM lesions were supratentorial, 97.8% of which involved the cerebral cortex, 86.0% of lesions had hemosiderin rim, and 50.5% of lesions were located in the temporal lobe. Binary logistic regression analysis indicated that CCM diagnosis age ≤ 44 years (odds ratio [OR] 2.79, p = 0.010), temporal lobe lesion location (OR = 9.07, p = 0.042), medial temporal lobe lesion (OR = 14.09, p = 0.002), cortical involvement of the lesion (OR = 32.77, p = 0.010), and hemosiderin rim around the lesion (OR = 16.48, p = 0.001) significantly increased the risk of CRE.

CONCLUSIONS

The most common seizure type of CRE was FBTCS. Those whose CCM diagnosis age was ≤ 44 years, having a temporal lobe lesion location, especially the medial temporal lobe lesion, cortical involvement, and hemosiderin rim around the lesion had a higher risk of developing CRE.

Residual and Recurrent Spinal Cord Cavernous Malformations: Outcomes and Techniques to Optimize Resection and a Systematic Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Intramedullary spinal cord cavernous malformations (SCCMs) account for only 5% of overall cavernous malformations (CMs). The occurrence of recurrent or residual SCCMs has not been well discussed, nor have the technical nuances of resection.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the characteristics of residual SCCMs and surgical outcomes and describe the techniques to avoid leaving lesion remnants during primary resection.

METHODS

Demographic, radiologic, intraoperative findings and surgical outcomes data for a cohort of surgically managed intramedullary SCCMs were obtained from an institutional database and retrospectively analyzed. A systematic literature review was performed using PRISMA guidelines.

RESULTS

Of 146 SCCM resections identified, 17 were for residual lesions (12%). Patients with residuals included 13 men and 4 women, with a mean age of 43 years (range 16-70). All patients with residual SCCMs had symptomatic presentations: sensory deficits, paraparesis, spasticity, and pain. Residuals occurred between 3 and 264 months after initial resection. Approaches for 136 cases included posterior midline myelotomy (28.7%, n = 39), pial surface entry (37.5%, n = 51), dorsal root entry zone (27.9%, n = 38), and lateral entry (5.9%, n = 8). Follow-up outcomes were similar for patients with primary and residual lesions, with the majority having no change in modified Rankin Scale score (63% [59/93] vs 75% [9/12], respectively, P = .98).

CONCLUSION

SCCMs may cause significant symptoms. During primary resection, care should be taken to avoid leaving residual lesion remnants, which can lead to future hemorrhagic events and neurological morbidity. However, satisfactory results are achievable even with secondary or tertiary resections.

Nomogram for predicting an individual prospective hemorrhage risk in untreated brainstem cavernous malformations

OBJECTIVE

In this study, the authors aimed to create a nomogram for precisely predicting the 5-year prospective hemorrhage risk in brainstem cavernous malformations (BSCMs).

METHODS

Patients with confirmed BSCMs in a single-center prospective observational series from January 2012 to December 2016 were included in the present study for nomogram building and validation. The concordance index (C-index), calibration curves, and decision curve analysis were used to evaluate the predictive accuracy, discriminative ability, and clinical usefulness of the nomogram. Then, a nomogram-based risk stratification model for untreated BSCMs was developed.

RESULTS

In total, 600 patients were included in the study; 417 patients who had been enrolled before July 2015 were divided into the training and validation cohorts, and 183 subsequently enrolled patients were used as the external validation cohort. By applying a backward stepwise procedure in the multivariable Cox model, variables, including prior hemorrhage (HR 1.69), hemorrhage on admission (HR 3.33), lesion size > 1.5 cm (HR 1.84), lesion depth (HR 2.35), crossing the axial midpoint (HR 1.94), and developmental venous anomaly (HR 2.62), were incorporated to develop a nomogram. The Harrell C-index values for a 5-year prospective hemorrhage were 0.752 (95% CI 0.687–0.816), 0.801 (95% CI 0.665–0.936), and 0.758 (95% CI 0.674–0.842) in the training, internal validation, and external validation cohorts, respectively. The nomogram performed well in terms of consistency between prediction and actual observation according to the calibration curve. The patients could be classified into three distinct (low, medium, and high) risk groups using the final score of this nomogram.

CONCLUSIONS

Independent predictors of the 5-year hemorrhage risk in untreated BSCMs were selected to create the first nomogram for predicting individual prospective hemorrhage. The nomogram was able to stratify patients into different risk groups and assist in clinical decision-making.

Tailored Treatment Options for Cerebral Cavernous Malformations

The diagnosis and treatment of cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs), or cavernomas, continues to evolve as more data and treatment modalities become available. Intervention is necessary when a lesion causes symptomatic neurologic deficits, seizures, or has high risk of continued hemorrhage. Future medical treatment directions may specifically target the pathogenesis of these lesions. This review highlights the importance of individualized treatment plans based on specific CCM characteristics.

Levetiracetam-Induced Psychosis in the Setting of Intracranial Cavernomas

Levetiracetam is a commonly used antiepileptic medication that has been associated with the development of psychosis. Cavernomas are vascular malformations that have been associated with psychosis as well, especially in the setting of hemorrhagic transformation. This case report describes a patient with cavernomas who developed psychotic symptoms after restarting her levetiracetam at a high dose (2000 mg twice a day) without gradual uptitration. Her symptoms improved upon the reduction of the levetiracetam as well as the initiation of paliperidone. This case highlights the importance of considering the biologic and medication-related factors for the development of psychosis, as well as the importance of gradual medication adjustments.

Clinical application of diffusion tensor imaging and fiber tractography in the management of brainstem cavernous malformations: a systematic review

This study aimed to systematically review the literature to determine the clinical utility and perspectives of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in the management of patients with brainstem cavernous malformations (BSCMs). PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane were searched for English-language articles published until May 10, 2021. Clinical studies and case series describing DTI-based evaluation of patients with BSCMs were included. Fourteen articles were included. Preoperative DTI enabled to adjust the surgical approach and choose a brainstem safe entry zone in deep-seated BSCMs. Preoperatively lower fractional anisotropy (FA) of the corticospinal tract (CST) correlated with the severity of CST injury and motor deficits. Postoperatively increased FA and decreased apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) corresponded with the normalization of the perilesional CST, indicating motor improvement. The positive (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of qualitative DTI ranged from 20 to 75% and from 66.6 to 100%, respectively. The presence of preoperative and postoperative motor deficits was associated with a higher preoperative resting motor threshold (RMT) and lower FA. A higher preoperative CST score was indicative of a lower preoperative and follow-up Medical Research Council (MRC) grade. DTI facilitated the determination of a surgical trajectory with minimized risk of WMTs' damage. Preoperative FA and RMT might indicate the severity of preoperative and postoperative motor deficits. Preoperative CST score can reliably reflect patients' preoperative and follow-up motor status. Due to high NPV, normal CST morphology might predict intact neurological outcomes. Contrarily, sparse and relatively low PPV limits the reliable prediction of neurological deficits.

An isolated cavernous malformation of the sixth cranial nerve: A case report and review of literature

Background

Isolated cavernous malformation (CM) of the abducens nerve has not been reported in the literature. Herein, the authors address the clinical importance of these lesions and review the reported cases of CM from 2014 to 2020.

Case Description

A 21-year-old man presented with binocular diplopia and headache from 2 months before his admission. The neurological examination revealed right-sided abducens nerve palsy. The brain MRI revealed an extra-axial pontomedullary lesion suggestive of a CM. The lesion was surgically removed. During the operation, the abducens nerve was resected considering the lesion could not be separated from the nerve and an anastomosis was performed using an interposition nerve graft and fibrin glue. Pathological examination of the resected lesion revealed that it was originated from within the nerve. The patient's condition improved in postoperative follow-ups.

Conclusion

Surgical resection of the cranial nerves CMs is appropriate when progressive neurological deficits are present. If the lesion is originated from within the nerve, we suggest resection of the involved nerve and performing anastomosis. Novel MRI sequences might help surgeons to be prepared for such cases and fibrin glue can serve as an appropriate tool to perform anastomosis when end-to-end sutures are impossible to perform.

Paediatric giant cavernomas: report of three cases with a review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Cavernous angiomas of the brain (CCM) are being increasingly diagnosed, especially in the paediatric age group. Though classic presentations with haemorrhage or seizures are well recognised, presentation as a large lesion with mass effect is rare and creates difficulty in diagnosis as well as management.

METHODS

Our cases of paediatric giant CCMs that presented as a 'mass lesion' are reported here, and the PubMed database for giant CCMs in the paediatric population is reviewed. All articles where the size of the lesion was reported to be > 4 cm were selected for analysis to study the varying modes of presentation, treatment, and outcome; to gain a proper perspective on this distinct entity of 'giant CCMs'.

RESULTS

Analysis of a total of 53 cases (inclusive of our 3 cases) reported so far showed slight male preponderance (58.49%). The largest reported lesion was 14 cm in largest diameter. Most of the lesions (83.02%) occurred in the supratentorial region. In the infratentorial region, paediatric giant CCMs were more commonly seen in the cerebellum than in the brainstem. Seizures were observed in 47.17% at presentation. Features of mass effect were the mode of presentation in all our cases, and literature analysis has shown raised intracranial pressure in 37.74% (20 patients) and focal neurological deficit in 33.96% (18 patients) at presentation. Macrocephaly was seen in younger children up to the age of 7 years (16.98% or 9 patients). Gross total resection was carried out (with a good outcome) in all our cases and in 36 of the other 49 analysed patients who were operated on.

DISCUSSION

About one-fourth of CCMs occur in paediatric patients. Giant CCMs are rare but can present in children even in the immediate post-natal period. Features of a mass lesion such as raised intracranial pressure, macrocephaly, and focal neurological deficit are much more common than their smaller counterparts. Their appearance on imaging also often causes diagnostic dilemmas with other intracranial mass lesions. Timely surgery with standard microsurgical principles leads to a favourable outcome in the majority.

CONCLUSION

Giant CCMs, though rare, often present as a diagnostic challenge. Presentation with mass effect is common, and complete microsurgical excision remains the mainstay of treatment. Though transient neurological deficits may be encountered with this strategy, the long-term outcome remains favourable.

Cavernous malformations of the hypothalamus: a single-institution series of 12 cases and review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

There remains a paucity of literature on hypothalamic cavernous malformations (HCMs). Here, the authors present the largest series of HCMs to date and review the literature to gain additional insight into this rare disease subset.

METHODS

A prospectively managed database was retrospectively reviewed for patients diagnosed with symptomatic HCM and treated surgically between 1987 and 2019. Data gathered included demographics, presenting signs, radiological measurements, surgical approach, and postoperative events. Functional outcome was measured using the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) and Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE) pre- and postoperatively. A PRISMA guideline systematic review of HCM in the literature was performed.

RESULTS

Our cohort study consisted of 12 patients with symptomatic, and radiographically confirmed, HCM treated with microsurgery by the senior author (G.K.S.). An additional 16 surgically or conservatively managed patients were also identified from the literature, and the authors analyzed the data of all 28 patients (with 54% of patients being male; mean age 39 ± 16 years, range 10-68 years). Patients harboring HCMs most commonly presented with headache (16/28, 57%), short-term memory impairment (11/28, 39%), and gait disturbance (8/28, 32%). Radiographically, lesions most commonly involved the mammillary region (18/23, 78%), the tuberal/infundibulum region (13/23, 57%), and the preoptic/lamina terminalis region (12/23, 52%), with a mean diameter of 2.5 ± 1.4 cm (range 0.8-7 cm) at presentation. Acute hemorrhage was identified in 96% (23/24) of patients on presentation, with 96% (23/24) intraparenchymal and 29% (7/24) intraventricular. Of 24 patients who were managed surgically, gross-total resection (GTR) was achieved in 88% (21/24) of cases. There were no reports of perioperative infarction or mortality. With a mean follow-up period of 41 months (range 0.5-309 months), 77% (20/26) of patients experienced functional improvement, while 12% (3/26) had no change, and 12% (3/26) experienced increased disability. In our cohort of 12 patients, 83% (10/12) continued to report symptoms at the last follow-up (mean 4.8 years, range 0.1-25.7 years). However, there was a significant improvement in mRS score noted after surgery (mean 1.4 vs 3.1, p = 0.0026) and a trend toward improvement in GOSE score (mean 6.3 vs 5.1, p = 0.09).

CONCLUSIONS

Hemorrhage from HCMs can cause a symptomatic mass effect on adjacent eloquent structures. While patients are unlikely to be deficit free following surgery, GTR allows for functional improvement and reduces recurrent hemorrhage rates. Microsurgery remains a viable option for symptomatic HCMs in experienced hands.

Basal ganglia cavernous malformations: case series and systematic review of surgical management and long-term outcomes

OBJECTIVE

Reports on basal ganglia cavernous malformations (BGCMs) are rare. Here, the authors report on their experience in resecting these malformations to offer insight into this infrequent disease subtype.

METHODS

The authors retrospectively reviewed a prospectively managed departmental database of all deep-seated cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) treated at Stanford between 1987 and 2019 and included for further analysis those with a radiographic diagnosis of BGCM. Moreover, a systematic literature review was undertaken using the PubMed and Web of Science databases.

RESULTS

The departmental database search yielded 331 patients with deep-seated CCMs, 44 of whom had a BGCM (13.3%). Headache was the most common presenting sign (53.5%), followed by seizure (32.6%) and hemiparesis (27.9%). Lesion location involved the caudate nucleus in 21.4% of cases compared to 78.6% of cases within the lentiform nucleus. Caudate BGCMs were larger on presentation and were more likely to present to the ependymal surface (p < 0.001) with intraventricular hemorrhage and hydrocephalus (p = 0.005 and 0.007, respectively). Dizziness and diplopia were also more common with lesions involving the caudate. Because of their anatomical location, caudate BGCMs were preferentially treated via an interhemispheric approach and were less likely to be associated with worsening perioperative deficits than lentiform BGCMs (p = 0.006 and 0.045, respectively). Ten patients (25.6%) were clinically worse in the immediate postoperative period, 4 (10.2%) of whom continued to suffer permanent morbidity at the last follow-up. A long-term good outcome (modified Rankin Scale [mRS] score 0-1) was attained in 74.4% of cases compared to the 69.2% of patients who had presented with an mRS score 0-1. Relative to their presenting mRS score, 89.8% of patients had an improved or unchanged status at the last follow-up. The median postoperative follow-up was 11 months (range 1-252 months). Patient outcomes after resection did not differ among surgical approaches; however, patients presenting with hemiparesis and lesions involving the globus pallidus or posterior limb of the internal capsule were more likely to suffer neurological deficits during the immediate perioperative period. Patients who had undergone awake surgeries were more likely to suffer neurological decline at the early as well as the late follow-up. When adjusting for awake craniotomy as a potential confounder of lesion location, a BGCM involving the posterior limb was predictive of developing early postoperative deficits, but this finding did not persist at the long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgery is a safe and effective treatment modality for managing BGCMs, with an estimated long-term permanent morbidity rate of around 10%.

Functional DTI tractography in brainstem cavernoma surgery

OBJECTIVE

Surgical resection of brainstem cavernomas is associated with high postoperative morbidity due to the density of local vulnerable structures. Classical mapping of pathways by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) has proven to be unspecific and confusing in many cases. In the current study, the authors aimed to establish a more reliable, specific, and objective method for somatotopic visualization of the descending motor pathways with navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS)–based DTI fiber tracking.

METHODS

Twenty-one patients with brainstem cavernomas were examined with nTMS prior to surgery. The resting motor threshold (RMT) and cortical representation areas of hand, leg, and facial function were determined on both hemispheres. Motor evoked potential (MEP)–positive stimulation spots were then set as seed points for tractography. Somatotopic fiber tracking was performed at a fractional anisotropy (FA) value of 75% of the individual FA threshold.

RESULTS

Mapping of the motor cortex and tract reconstruction for hand, leg, and facial function was successful in all patients. The somatotopy of corticospinal and corticonuclear tracts was also clearly depicted on the brainstem level. Higher preoperative RMT values were associated with a postoperative motor deficit (p < 0.05) and correlated with a lower FA threshold (p < 0.05), revealing structural impairment of the corticospinal tract (CST) prior to surgery. In patients with a new deficit, the distance between the lesion and CST was below 1 mm.

CONCLUSIONS

nTMS-based fiber tracking enables objective somatotopic tract visualization on the brainstem level and provides a valuable instrument for preoperative planning, intraoperative orientation, and individual risk stratification. nTMS may thus increase the safety of surgical resection of brainstem cavernomas.

Outcome of intracerebral cavernoma treated by Gamma Knife radiosurgery based on a double-blind assessment of treatment indication

BACKGROUND

The benefit and the risk profile of Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) for intracerebral cavernoma remains incompletely defined in part due to the natural history of low incidence of bleeding and spontaneous regression of this vascular malformation. In this study, we retrieved cases from a prospectively collected database to assess the outcome of intracerebral cavernoma treated with GKRS using a double blinded review process for treatment.

METHODS

From 2003 to 2018, there were 94 cases of cavernoma treated by GKRS in the doubly blinded assessments by two experienced neurological and approved for GKRS treatment. All the patients received GKRS with margin dose of 11-12 (Gray) Gy and afterwards were assessed for neurological outcome, radiologic response, and quality of life.

RESULTS

The median age of the patients was 48 (15-85) years with median follow up of 77 (26-180) months post SRS. The mean target volume was 1.93 ± 3.45 cc. In those who has pre-SRS epilepsy, 7 of 16 (43.7%) achieved seizure freedom (Engel I/II) and 9 of 16 (56.3%) achieved decreased seizures (Engel III) after SRS. Rebleeding occurred in 2 cases (2.1%) at 13 and 52 months post SRS. The radiologic assessment demonstrated 20 (21.3%) cases of decreased cavernoma volume, 69 (73.4%) were stable, and 5 (7.3%) increased size. Eighty-seven of 94 (92.5%) cases at the last follow up achieve improvement in their quality of life, but 7 cases (7.4%) showed a deterioration. In statistical analysis, the effective seizure control class (Engel I/II) was highly correlated with patient harboring a single lesion (p < 0.05) and deep seated location of the cavernoma (p < 0.01). New neurological deficits were highly correlated with decreased mental (p < 0.001) and physical (p < 0.05) components of quality of life testing, KPS (p < 0.001), deep seated location (p < 0.01), and increased nidus volume (p < 0.05). Quality of life deterioration either in physical component (p < 0.01), mental component (p < 0.01), and KPS (p < 0.05) was highly correlated with increased cavernoma volume.

CONCLUSION

Low margin dose GKRS for intracerebral cavernoma offers reasonable seizure control and improved quality of life while conferring a low risk of treatment complications including adverse radiation effect.

Gamma Knife Radiosurgery for Cavernous Malformations of Basal Ganglia and Thalamus: A Retrospective Study of 53 Patients

INTRODUCTION

Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) has been used to treat cavernous malformations (CMs) located in basal ganglia and thalamus. However, previous reports are limited by small patient population.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the clinical and radiological data of 53 patients with CMs of basal ganglia and thalamus who underwent GKRS at West China Hospital between May 2009 and July 2018. All patients suffered at least once bleeding before GKRS. The mean volume of these lesions was 1.77 cm3, and the mean marginal dose was 13.2 Gy. After treatment, patients were followed to determine the change in symptom and hemorrhage event.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up period was 52.1 months (6.2-104.3 months). The calculated annual hemorrhage rate (AHR) was 48.5% prior to GKRS and 3.0% after treatment (p < 0.001). The Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that 2-, 3-, and 5-year hemorrhage-free survival were 88, 80.9, and 80.9%, respectively. Preexisting symptoms were resolved in 11 patients, improved in 14, and stable in 5. Only 2 patients (3.8%) developed new neurological deficit.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that AHR after GKRS was comparable to the recorded AHR of natural history (3.1-4.1%) in previous studies. GKRS is a safe and effective treatment modality for CMs of basal ganglia and thalamus. Considering the relative insufficient understanding of natural history of CMs, future study warrants longer follow-up.

Rare asymptomatic giant cerebral cavernous malformation in adults: two case reports and a literature review

Cavernous malformations are benign vascular malformations. Giant cavernous malformations are very rare. All reported cases have been symptomatic because of the large size and compression of the surrounding brain tissue. We report two asymptomatic cases of giant cavernous malformation that were both misdiagnosed as neoplasms because of their atypical presentations. The first case was a 54-year-old man whose computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scans revealed an inhomogeneous lesion of 6 cm diameter and mild enhancement in the left frontal lobe. A left lateral supraorbital and transcortical approach was applied and the lesion was completely removed. The second case was a 36-year-old man with an irregular large mass in the parasellar region. Craniopharyngioma was suspected and gross total resection was performed. Post-surgical pathological analyses confirmed the diagnoses as cavernous malformations. Both patients recovered uneventfully. The rare asymptomatic giant cavernous malformations reported here in adults had benign behavior for this specific disease entity. The different clinical characteristics of ordinary cavernous malformation and adult and pediatric giant cavernous malformation imply complex and distinct genetic backgrounds. Concerns should be raised when considering giant cavernous malformation as a differential diagnosis for atypical large lesions. Surgical resection is recommended as the primary treatment option.

Natural history of brainstem cavernous malformations: prospective hemorrhage rate and adverse factors in a consecutive prospective cohort

OBJECTIVE

Given the paucity of data on the natural history of brainstem cavernous malformations (CMs), the authors aimed to evaluate the annual hemorrhage rate and hemorrhagic risk of brainstem CMs.

METHODS

Nine hundred seventy-nine patients diagnosed with brainstem CMs were referred to Beijing Tiantan Hospital from 2006 to 2015; 224 patients were excluded according to exclusion criteria, and 47 patients were lost to follow-up. Thus, this prospective observational cohort included 708 cases (324 females). All patients were registered, clinical data were recorded, and follow-up was completed.

RESULTS

Six hundred ninety (97.5%) of the 708 patients had a prior hemorrhage, 514 (72.6%) had hemorrhagic presentation, and developmental venous anomaly (DVA) was observed in 241 cases (34.0%). Two hundred thirty-seven prospective hemorrhages occurred in 175 patients (24.7%) during 3400.2 total patient-years, yielding a prospective annual hemorrhage rate of 7.0% (95% CI 6.2%-7.9%), which decreased to 4.7% after the 1st year. Multivariate Cox regression analysis after adjusting for sex and age identified hemorrhagic presentation (HR 1.574, p = 0.022), DVA (HR 1.678, p = 0.001), mRS score ≥ 2 on admission (HR 1.379, p = 0.044), lesion size > 1.5 cm (HR 1.458, p = 0.026), crossing the axial midpoint (HR 1.446, p = 0.029), and superficially seated location (HR 1.307, p = 0.025) as independent adverse factors for prospective hemorrhage, but history of prior hemorrhage was not significant. The annual hemorrhage rates were 8.3% and 4.3% in patients with and without hemorrhagic presentation, respectively; the rate was 9.9%, 6.0%, and 1.0% in patients with ≥ 2, only 1, and 0 prior hemorrhages, respectively; and the rate was 9.2% in patients with both hemorrhagic presentation and focal neurological deficit on admission.

CONCLUSIONS

The study reported an annual hemorrhage rate of 7.0% exclusively for brainstem CMs, which significantly increased if patients presented with both hemorrhagic presentation and focal neurological deficit (9.2%), or any other risk factor. Patients with a risk factor for hemorrhage needed close follow-up regardless of the number of prior hemorrhages. It should be noted that the referral bias in this study could have overestimated the annual hemorrhage rate. This study improved the understanding of the natural history of brainstem CMs, and the results are important for helping patients and physicians choose a suitable treatment option based on the risk factors and stratified annual rates.Clinical trial registration no.: ChiCTR-POC-17011575 (http://www.chictr.org.cn/).

Prevalence of cerebrovascular diseases that can cause hemorrhagic stroke in liver transplantation recipients: a 6-year comparative study with 24,681 healthy adults

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cerebrovascular diseases are a leading cause of mortality after liver transplantation (LT). The prevalence of potentially hemorrhagic cerebrovascular diseases (HCVDs) that could cause a hemorrhagic stroke in patients with severe liver diseases has not been reported. We aimed to analyze the underlying prevalence of HCVDs that could lead to hemorrhagic strokes in LT recipients compared with that in previously healthy controls.

METHODS

A retrospective study with 1,920 consecutive LT recipients and 24,681 adults who underwent a health checkup during the same period was conducted (January 2011-December 2016). The prevalence of cerebral aneurysms (CA), cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM), and cavernous malformation (CM) was evaluated using brain imaging, including computed tomography angiography, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance angiography, and digital subtraction angiography.

RESULTS

The prevalence of CA and CM were 3.1% and 0.5%, respectively, in the LT group and 3.8% and 0.4%, respectively, in the control group. According to the location of the cerebral artery, paraclinoid internal carotid artery aneurysms (odds ratio [OR] 0.440; P = 0.009) had a lower prevalence in LT recipients than in healthy controls. Anterior communicating artery (OR 3.080; P = 0.002) and superior cerebellar artery (OR 8.767; P = 0.017) aneurysms had a higher prevalence in the LT group than in the control. The prevalence of AVM was significantly higher in LT recipients (0.26%) than in healthy controls (0.06%).

CONCLUSION

LT recipients showed a different distribution of CA prevalence according to the locations of the cerebral artery and had a higher overall prevalence of AVM than previously healthy controls.

Cerebral cavernous malformation: Management and outcome during pregnancy and puerperium. A systematic review of literature

INTRODUCTION

Cerebral cavernomas malformations (CCMs) are vascular malformations that occur with an incidence of 0,4-0,8 % in general population. The most feared complication is cerebral hemorrhage. Currently there are no guidelines for pregnant women with CCMs. Some authors claimed that many physiological changes related to pregnancy could be linked to an high risk of rupture and bleeding of the cerebral cavernoma. However, more recent studies highlight that the presence of cerebral cavernomatosis is not a contraindication for pregnancy and that the risk of bleeding is similar in pregnant and in non-pregnant women.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of our work is to analyze, through the study of controversial findings in literature, all the information currently available trying to establish a common approach for management of women with cerebral cavernomatosis in pregnancy, during childbirth and in the puerperium.

FINDINGS

In accordance with existing literature, pregnancy does not appear to be a significant risk factor for the worsening of clinical manifestations associated with the presence of CCMs. Vaginal delivery is not contraindicated in patients with CCMs and there is no indication to perform cesarean section to reduce the incidence of hemorrhage. The only indication for neurosurgery of CCMs in pregnancy is the presence of rapidly progressive symptoms and should be postponed to the puerperium if arises after 30 weeks. The puerperium is a critical time for the woman with cavernomas for the possibility of bleeding and clinical observation must be continued.

CONCLUSION

The patients with a diagnosis of a CCMs can have a pregnancy without any particular risk to themselves and the fetus but should be addressed to highly specialized obstetrics center to assesses the initial individual risk related to their pathology and to follow the pregnancy.

Giant Cerebellar Cavernomas in Pediatric Patients: Systematic Review with Illustrative Case

INTRODUCTION

Giant cavernomas (GCMs) are angiographically occult vascular malformations of the central nervous system measuring at least 4 cm in diameter. These are rare lesions, especially in the cerebellum. As such, the clinical and radiologic features, surgical management, and outcomes of treatment for this condition are unknown.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of SCOPUS and PubMed databases for case reports and case series of histopathologically proven GCMs arising from the cerebellum in the pediatric population, and included a case managed at our center. Data on clinical presentation, imaging features, surgical treatment and outcomes of management were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 10 cases were identified from the systematic review, including our case report. The patients' median age was 6 months, with a slight male sex predilection (1.5:1). The most common neurologic manifestations were bulging fontanelle in infants, and headache and focal cerebellar deficits in older children. Surgical excision was done in all cases, while 50% of the cases had CSF diversion surgery done prior to excision. In cases with reported outcome, complete neurologic recovery was achieved in seven while partial recovery was reported in one case. No deaths were reported at median follow-up of 12 months.

CONCLUSION

Our case report and systematic review show that giant cerebellar cavernoma is a rare differential diagnosis for symptomatic hemorrhagic cerebellar masses in the pediatric age group. Mainstay of treatment is surgical excision, which can be associated with favorable outcome in most cases.

Cerebral Cavernous Malformation: What a Practicing Clinician Should Know

Cavernous malformations (CMs) are angiographically occult, low-flow vascular malformations of the central nervous system. They are acquired lesions, with approximately 80% of patients having the sporadic form and 20% the familial form of the disease. The lesions may also develop years after radiotherapy. At the microscopic level, they consist of endothelium-lined cavities (or "caverns") containing blood of different ages. The endothelium proliferates abnormally, and tight junctions are absent or dysfunctional, resulting in leakiness of the endothelium and clinical manifestations in some patients. Cavernous malformations can be an incidental finding or can present with focal neurologic deficits, seizures, or headache, with or without associated hemorrhage. Management of the CM lesion requires knowledge of the natural history of the disease compared with the risk of surgical intervention. Surgery is often considered for symptomatic patients with lesions in a noneloquent location. Medical management is warranted for symptoms related to the CM. Research aimed at understanding the genes and signaling pathways related to CMs have provided potential drug targets, and clinical trials are underway to determine whether medications reduce the risk of future bleeding without surgery or modify the disease course. In addition, recent epidemiologic data have aided practitioners in determining how to treat comorbid conditions in patients with a potentially hemorrhagic lesion. This review provides an overview of the epidemiology, presentation, and clinical management of CMs.

Pathological Changes in Surgically Resected Cystic Cerebral Cavernous Malformation 13 Years After Radiosurgery: Case Report and Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) as a treatment for cerebral cavernous malformation (CCM) has been controversial, but there are few pathological reports showing its long-term therapeutic effect, and literature reporting the CCM cyst formation after SRS is also rare.

CASE DESCRIPTION

We present a 30-year-old woman with a ruptured right parietal CCM treated with SRS 13 years ago. The post-SRS imaging follow-up revealed CCM rehemorrhage and cyst formation. Surgical resection was performed, and a subsequent pathological examination revealed that the CCM still had some incomplete occluded vessels and a large number of newly formed capillaries, and hemorrhagic band and hemosiderin were seen around the nodule.

CONCLUSIONS

Recurrent hemorrhage after SRS for CCM could be related to incomplete occluded vessels and newly formed capillaries. Repeated hemorrhage from CCM newly formed capillaries into the small cavity increased the osmotic pressure, resulting in fluid entering the cavity and cyst enlargement.

Natural history of incidentally diagnosed brainstem cavernous malformations in a prospective observational cohort

There was a lack of natural history of incidental brainstem cavernous malformations (CMs), hemorrhage of which would lead to severe neuropathies. The study aimed to evaluate the prospective hemorrhage rate and neurological outcome of the disease. This prospective cohort included patients with incidental brainstem CMs referred to our institute from 2009 to 2015. The diagnosis was confirmed based on the patients' complain, physical examination, and radiographic evidence. Clinical data were collected, scheduled follow-up was performed, and the independent risk factors were identified by multivariate analysis. This cohort included 48 patients (22 female, 45.8%). The median follow-up duration was 60.7 months, and 13 prospective hemorrhages occurred within 244.0 patient-years yielding an annual hemorrhage rate of 5.3%. The hemorrhage-free survival at 1 and 5 years was 91.6% and 80.6%. Age ≥ 55 years (hazard ratio (HR) = 8.59, p = 0.003), lesion size (per 1-mm increase) (HR = 3.55, p = 0.041), developmental venous anomaly (HR = 10.28, p = 0.017), and perilesional edema (HR = 4.90, p = 0.043) were independent risk factors for hemorrhage. Seven patients (14.6%) received surgical resection, and the other 41 patients remained under observation. Neurological function was improved in 22 patients (45.8%), unchanged in 19 (39.6%), and worsened in 7 (14.6%). Prospective hemorrhage (odds ratio = 14.95, p = 0.037) was the only independent risk factor for worsened outcomes. The natural history of incidental brainstem CMs seemed to be acceptable with improved/unchanged outcomes in most patients (85.4%). These results improved our understanding of the disease, and the future study of a large cohort was required to verify our findings.

Giant intraventricular and paraventricular cavernous malformations with multifocal subependymal cavernous malformations in pediatric patients: Two case reports

BACKGROUND

Giant cavernous malformation (GCM) is rarely found in intraventricular or paraventricular locations.

CASE SUMMARY

We present two cases of 6-mo and 21-mo boys with intraventricular and paraventricular GCMs including a literature review focused on location and imaging findings. Characteristic magnetic resonance imaging findings such as multicystic lesions and a hemosiderin ring or bubbles-of-blood appearance can assist in the differential diagnosis of a hemorrhagic intraventricular and/or paraventricular mass.

CONCLUSION

Multifocal intraventricular and/or paraventricular GCM in small children is rare. The characteristic magnetic resonance imaging findings can help to differentiate GCMs from other intraventricular tumors.

Distinguishing mimics from true hemorrhagic cavernous malformations

Cavernous malformations (CM) are angiographically occult vascular malformations. CM appear as discrete, small lesions with mixed-signal characteristics on T2 reflecting the underlying pathology. However, the appearance is not pathognomonic. Distinguishing true CM from hemorrhagic tumors can be difficult. We report 5 cases of tumors mimicking CMs. We compared clinical, initial radiologic features, and MRI evolution between 5 tumor mimics and 51 true hemorrhagic, sporadic, brain CM. Compared to true CM, mimic patients were older (47.0 vs. 38.3 years; p = 0.076) and more likely to have a history of primary neoplasm (60% vs 12%; p = 0.0267). Radiologically, the CM mimics demonstrated a higher likelihood of lesion enhancement on the initial diagnostic MRI (60% vs. 16.7%%; p = 0.0609). On follow-up MRI (<1 year after baseline), CM mimics typically had persistent edema (100.0% vs. 6.25%, p = 0.0003) and demonstrated mixed density on ADC (100% vs. 32.1%; p = 0.0199) as well as increased likelihood of enhancement (100% vs 25.8, p = 0.0852). CM mimics were less likely to evolve to Type 2 or 3 lesions (25.0% vs. 84.4%, p = 0.0278). Clinical and radiologic factors may distinguish tumor metastases from true hemorrhagic CM. CM mimics should be suspected in older patients with a history of neoplasm and contrast enhancement on initial MRI. A repeat MRI within 90 days post-initial hemorrhage should be considered to confirm CM diagnosis. Persistent edema without rebleed, lesion enhancement, mixed signal on apparent diffusion co-efficient, and persistence of a Type 1 lesion should raise suspicion of a metastatic tumor.

Gamma Knife radiosurgery for cerebral cavernous malformation

This is a retrospective study examining the efficacy and safety of Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKS) in treating patients with cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs). Between 1993 and 2018, 261 patients with 331 symptomatic CCMs were treated by GKS. The median age was 39.9 years and females were predominant (54%). The median volume of CCMs was 3.1 mL. The median margin dose was 11.9 Gy treat to a median isodose level of 59%. Median clinical and imaging follow-up times were 69 and 61 months, respectively. After the initial hemorrhage that led to CCM diagnosis, 136 hemorrhages occurred in the period prior to GKS (annual incidence = 23.6%). After GKS, 15 symptomatic hemorrhages occurred within the first 2 years of follow-up (annual incidence = 3.22%), and 37 symptomatic hemorrhages occurred after the first 2 years of follow-up (annual incidence = 3.16%). Symptomatic radiation-induced complication was encountered in 8 patients (3.1%). Mortality related to GKS occurred in 1 patient (0.4%). In conclusion, GKS decreased the risk of hemorrhage in CCM patients presenting with symptomatic hemorrhage. GKS is a viable alternative treatment option for patients with surgically-inaccessible CCMs or significant medical comorbidities.

Neurovascular Lesions in Pediatric Epilepsy

INTRODUCTION

Neurovascular lesions are rare and understudied in the pediatric population. Their initial presentation can range from seizures to focal neurologic deficits, as well as headaches. The goal of this study was to examine the clinical presentation and natural history of neurovascular lesions in children with epilepsy.

METHODS

We reviewed all pediatric epilepsy patients with neurovascular lesions diagnosed between 2006 and 2018 at the University of Alberta and the Stollery Children's Hospital, Edmonton, Canada. Initial clinical presentation and brain imaging, as well as long-term epilepsy and postsurgical outcome, were assessed.

RESULTS

Of the 14 patients, 10 patients had an initial presentation of focal seizures with impaired awareness, whereas 2 patients presented with headache, 1 presented with visual field defects as well as chronic headaches, and 1 with decreased level of consciousness. Seven patients had cavernous angiomas, 6 had arteriovenous malformation, and 1 patient had an arteriovenous fistula. Notably, all patients with cavernous angiomas and 4 of 6 patients with arteriovenous malformations presented with seizures. Among 9 of the 14 who underwent neurovascular corrective surgery, all 9 patients required long-term antiepileptic treatment of at least 1 antiepileptic drug for seizure control after the operation.

CONCLUSION

In this novel case series, we describe focal seizures as the initial presentation of pediatric neurovascular lesions. This clinical presentation appears to be independent of the type of neurovascular lesion. Furthermore, unlike our pediatric surgical patients with epilepsy due to other causes, seizure freedom following neurovascular surgery is limited, and patients require long-term antiepileptic treatment.

Supratentorial cavernoma and epilepsy: Experience with 23 cases and literature review

Background

The current study aimed to assess the role of microsurgical treatment of patients with supratentorial cavernoma with epilepsy based on analysis of our patients.

Methods

This retrospective study included 23 patients with supratentorial cavernoma on computed tomography (CT) scan and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain admitted to the Department of Neurosurgery, Assiut University Hospitals (single tertiary hospital) between January 2014 and January 2018 (minimum 12-month follow-up). Deep-seated hemispheric and multiple cavernomas were excluded. Radiographs and hospital data of the patients were gathered and analyzed. All patients underwent the surgical procedure by one experienced neurosurgeon and the diagnosis was confirmed by pathologic evaluation.

Results

A total of 23 patients underwent surgical intervention consist of 15 (65%) men and 8 (35%) women. Their age varies from 11 to 59 year with an average of 36.6 years. All patients presented with seizure. The supratentorial cavernomas were located commonly in temporal lobes; 9 patients (39.1%). 19 (83%) of cavernoma located in the left side. 18 (78%) of cavernoma had a size <2 cavernoma. Complete excision was confirmed in postoperative investigations (CT and MRI brain images). All 10 patients with only one seizure preoperatively were seizure free at follow-up. Of nine patients who had experienced between two and five seizures preoperatively, 7 (78%) were seizure free, and of four patients with numerous seizures preoperatively, 3 (75%) were seizure free.

Conclusion

Our retrospective population study demonstrates an insight into the supratentorial cavernoma and suggests that microsurgical removal of the symptomatic cavernoma is generally accepted as the most effective and safe method.

Clinical presentation, natural history and outcomes of intramedullary spinal cord cavernous malformations

OBJECTIVE

There is a paucity of literature investigating the clinical course of patients with spinal intramedullary cavernous malformations (ISCMs). We present a large case series of ISCMs to describe clinical presentation, natural history and outcomes of both surgical and conservative management.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the clinical course of patients diagnosed with ISCMs at our institution between 1995 and 2016. Haemorrhage was defined as clinical worsening in tandem with imaging changes visualised on follow-up MRI. Outcomes assessed included neurological status and annual haemorrhage rates.

RESULTS

A total of 107 patients met inclusion criteria. Follow-up data were available for 85 patients. While 21 (24.7%) patients underwent immediate surgical resection, 64 (75.3%) were initially managed conservatively. Among this latter group, 16 (25.0%) suffered a haemorrhage during follow-up and 11 (17.2%) required surgical resection due to interval bleeding or neurological worsening. The overall annual risk of haemorrhage was 5.5% per person year. The rate among patients who were symptomatic and asymptomatic on presentation was 9.5% and 0.8%, respectively. Median time to haemorrhage was 2.3 years (0.1-12.3). Univariate analysis identified higher ISCM size (p=0.024), history of prior haemorrhage (p=0.013) and presence of symptoms (p=0.003) as risk factors for subsequent haemorrhage. Multivariable proportional hazards analysis revealed presence of symptoms to be independently associated with haemorrhage during follow-up (HR 9.39, CI 1.86 to 170.8, p=0.013).

CONCLUSION

Large, symptomatic ISCMs appear to be at increased risk for subsequent haemorrhage. Surgery may be considered in such lesions to prevent rebleeding and subsequent neurological worsening.

Baseline and Evolutionary Radiologic Features in Sporadic, Hemorrhagic Brain Cavernous Malformations

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Much has been written about the initial radiologic features of cavernous malformations, but less known are the radiologic natural history and evolution of the lesions, particularly when they initially present with hemorrhage. We aimed to describe the typical evolution of a sporadic, hemorrhagic brain cavernous malformation with time.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From our institutional review board-approved cavernous malformation registry, we assessed initial clinical and radiologic features and the subsequent MR imaging evolution of 51 patients with sporadic, hemorrhagic brain cavernous malformations (with follow-up brain MRIs available for review).

RESULTS

The initial MR imaging demonstrated mostly Zabramski type I lesions (94.2%) with T1 hyperintensity (94.2%) and associated edema (76.5%). Eight patients (15.6%) rebled in the first year with lesions characterized by new T1 hyperintensity (100%), edema (61.5%), and growth (median, 4 mm). By 90 days, most lesions had changed from Zabramski type I to type II or III (65.2%). While 76.5% had edema associated with the acute hemorrhage, none had persistent edema beyond 90 days unless rebleeding occurred. Across time, the frequency of T1 hyperintensity decreased from 94.2% at baseline to 73.9%, 57.1%, and 50.0% at <90, 91-365, and >365 days. DWI intensity at baseline and <90, 91-365, and >365 days was hypointense at 53.1%, 56.5%, 70.1%, and 81.2%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Hemorrhagic cavernous malformation demonstrates a characteristic pattern of evolution on follow-up imaging. Knowing this evolution helps to analyze the timing of imaging in relation to the clinical presentation and may help distinguish true cavernous malformation hemorrhagic evolution from mimics and guide appropriate timing of interval-imaging follow-up after symptomatic bleeds in untreated patients.

Transnasal endoscopic removal of a retrochiasmatic cavernoma: A case report and review of literature

Background:

Cavernomas arising in the region of the optic apparatus are extremely rare, accounting for <1% of all the central nervous system cavernomas. Most patients are affected by acute visual disturbances related to hemorrhagic events. A prompt resection of the lesion together with a decompression of the optic apparatus may lead to a functional improvement. Almost all patients reported in literature were treated by means of a craniotomy, whereas only few papers described the use of a transnasal approach.

Case Description:

We report the case of a 53-year-old woman with a hemorrhagic, cavernous malformation of the optic chiasm region and we discuss the technical nuances of the endoscopic transnasal approach we employed. We also review literature for patients with cavernomas treated with a transsphenoidal approach. In our case, the patient underwent the gross-total resection of the lesion through a fully endoscopic transnasal route and the visual disturbances improved immediately after the operation. The ventral access allowed an adequate exposure of the chiasm/anterior circulation complex, thus avoiding an excessive dissection and retraction of neurovascular structures. Moreover, with the aid of angled scopes, we were able to identify the frail vascular supply of the chiasm by employing the suprachiasmatic corridor as well as the infrachiasmatic one. We stress the need for a careful reconstruction of the skull base to avoid a postoperative cerebrospinal fluid leak.

Conclusions:

With the evolution and spreading of the neuroendoscopic techniques, in selected cases, we advocate the use of the transnasal route for the removal of cavernomas arising in the region of the anterior optic pathways.

Hemorrhage, Seizures, and Dynamic Changes of Familial versus Nonfamilial Cavernous Malformation: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) may be familial or nonfamilial. This systematic review compared the natural history of CCMs in familial compared with nonfamilial cases.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, Web of Science, and EMBASE for natural history studies on CCMs up to September 2018. We included studies that followed at least 20 untreated patients. Primary outcomes were hemorrhage, seizures, and neuroimaging changes in familial and nonfamilial cases. Incidence rate per person-year (PY) or lesion-year (LY) of follow-up were used to pool the data using fixed-effects or random-effects models. We used the incidence rate ratio for comparison.

RESULTS

We could not compare hemorrhage rates between familial and nonfamilial cases mainly owing to mixtures of subgroups of patients. The seizure rate was similar in familial and nonfamilial cases with pooled incidence rate of 1.5%/PY (95% confidence interval 1.1%-2.2%). The reseizure rate was higher than the seizure rate (P < 0.001). New lesion development was higher in familial cases (32.1%/PY vs. 0.7%/PY, P < 0.001). Signal change on neuroimaging ranged from 0.2%/LY to 2.4%/LY in familial cases. In familial cases, incidence rate of size change was 8%/PY (95% confidence interval 5.2%-12.2%) and 1.1%/LY (95% confidence interval 0.6%-1.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Familial CCMs show higher dynamic changes than nonfamilial cases. However, the presence of actual dynamic changes needs further assessment in nonfamilial cases. CCMs demonstrate a low incidence of seizure. First-time seizure increases the chance of recurrent seizure. Seizure rate based on the location and type of the lesion should be investigated further.

Contribution of Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition to the Pathogenesis of Human Cerebral and Orbital Cavernous Malformations

BACKGROUND

The analysis of gene-targeted mouse mutants has demonstrated that endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is crucial to the onset and progression of cerebral cavernous malformations (CMs). It has also been shown that Notch and ephrin/Eph signaling are involved in EndMT. However, their roles in the pathogenesis of human intracranial CMs remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the contribution of EndMT, the Notch pathway, and ephrin-B2/EphB4 signaling to the pathogenesis of human intracranial CMs.

METHODS

Eight human intracranial CMs (5 cerebral and 3 orbital CMs) were immunohistochemically investigated.

RESULTS

CD31 (an endothelial marker) and EndMT markers, such as α-smooth muscle actin (a mesenchymal marker) and CD44 (a mesenchymal stem cell marker), were expressed in the endothelial layer of vascular sinusoids in all cases, suggesting that endothelial cells (ECs) have acquired mesenchymal and stem-cell-like characteristics and undergone EndMT in all cerebral and orbital CMs. EndMT was observed in about 70% and 35% of ECs in cerebral and orbital CMs, respectively. In all cases, Notch3 was expressed in the endothelial layer, indicating that ECs of vascular sinusoids have acquired mesenchymal features. In all cases, both ephrin-B2 and EphB4 were detected in the endothelial layer, suggesting that ECs of vascular sinusoids are immature or malformed cells and have both arterial and venous characteristics.

CONCLUSION

EndMT plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of human cerebral and orbital CMs. Modulating EndMT is expected to be a new therapeutic strategy for cerebral and orbital CMs.

Multidisciplinary management of an intra-sellar cavernous hemangioma: Case report and review of the literature

Extra-axial cavernous hemangiomas (ECH) are rare vascular lesions with a tendency to grow within the medial structures of the middle cranial fossa. This pathological entity lacks specific symptoms, and falls into the category of differential diagnosis of space occupying lesions in the cavernous sinus (CS) with or without sellar involvement, including those of tumoral, vascular and inflammatory nature. Of note, ECH can also be indolent, and is at times discovered incidentally during autopsy investigations. On radiological studies, ECH with sellar extension are frequently mistaken at first for pituitary adenomas. Total removal of intrasellar-CS ECH is technically demanding and burdened by remarkable morbidity and mortality rates, mostly related to the complex neuroanatomy of the CS-sellar region (i.e., peri and postoperative bleeding, and transitory or permanent nerve palsies, hormonal deficits). Consequently, only a few cases of successful total removal have been reported so far in the literature. Surgical debulking with cranial nerve decompression followed by stereotactic radiosurgery is currently considered the best alternative to total removal when the latter carries excessive perioperative risks. We present a rare case of a mainly located intrasellar ECH extending to the left CS discussing its clinical features and focusing on the most relevant aspects of the surgical management along with a review of the pertinent literature.

A benchmark approach to hemorrhage risk management of cavernous malformations

Objective

Despite the low annual risk of hemorrhage associated with a cavernous malformation (CM) (0.6%–1.1% per year), the risk of rehemorrhage rate and severity of neurologic deficits is significantly higher; therefore, we aimed to evaluate the rupture risk of CMs depending on various factors.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed medical records of all patients with CM admitted to our institution between 1999 and April 2016. Cavernoma volume, location of the lesion, existence of a developmental venous anomaly (DVA), number of cavernomas, and patient characteristics (sex, age, hypertension, and antithrombotic therapy) were assessed.

Results

One hundred fifty-four patients with CM were included; 89 (58%) ruptured CMs were identified. In statistical univariable analysis, the existence of a DVA was significantly higher in the ruptured cavernoma group (p < 0.001; odds ratio [OR] 4.6). A multivariable analysis of all included independent risk factors designated young age (<45 years) (p < 0.05; OR 2.2), infratentorial location (p < 0.01; OR 2.9), and existence of a DVA (p < 0.0001; OR 4.7) with significantly higher risk of rupture in our patient cohort. A separate analysis of these anatomical locations, supratentorial vs infratentorial, indicated that the existence of a DVA (p < 0.01; OR 4.16) in ruptured supratentorial cases and CM volume (≥1 cm3) (p < 0.0001; OR 3.5) in ruptured infratentorial cases were significant independent predictors for hemorrhage.

Conclusions

Young age (<45 years), infratentorial location, and the presence of a DVA are associated with a higher hemorrhage risk. CM volume (≥1 cm3) and the existence of a DVA were independently in accordance with the anatomical location high risk factors for CM rupture.

Pediatric cerebellar giant cavernous malformation: case report and review of literature

BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE

Giant cavernous malformations (GCM) are low flow, angiographically occult vascular lesions, with a diameter >4 cm. Cerebellar GCMs are extremely rare, with only seven cases reported based on English literature. These lesions are most commonly seen in the pediatric age group, which is known to have an increased risk of hemorrhage, being surgery clearly recommended.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

An 18-month-old girl presented with a 6-month history of cervical torticollis and upper extremities clumsiness. An MRI revealed a 57 × 46 × 42 mm multi-cystic, left cerebellar hemisphere mass, showing areas of hemorrhages and cysts with various stages of thrombus. There was no enhancement with contrast. Cerebral angiography ruled out an arteriovenous malformation. She underwent a left paramedian occipital craniotomy, and macroscopic gross total resection was accomplished. Histopathologic examination was consistent with a cavernous malformation. After surgery, the patient had no new neurological deficit and an uneventful postoperative recovery. Follow-up MRI confirmed total removal of the lesion.

CONCLUSION

Cerebellar GCMs in children are symptomatic lesions, which prompt immediate surgical treatment. These are rare lesions, which can radiologically and clinically mimic a tumor with bleed, having to be considered in the differential diagnosis of neoplastic lesions. Cerebellar GCMs might be suspected in the presence of large hemorrhagic intra-axial mass with "bubbles of blood," multi-cystic appearance, surrounded by hemosiderin ring, fluid-fluid levels, and accompanying edema-mass effect. Careful radiological study provides a preoperative diagnosis, but its confirmation requires histopathological examination. Complete surgical removal should be attempted when possible.

Clinical Management of Cavernous Malformations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This study aims to review the current epidemiology and clinical management of patients with cavernous malformations (CM).

RECENT FINDINGS

Hemorrhage is the most feared complication and leads to morbidity in patients with CM. Multiple studies including three meta-analyses have provided useful estimates of hemorrhage risk, but have failed to identify a modifiable risk factor for prevention of cavernous malformation related hemorrhage. In treating the CM itself, surgical risk is weighed against the natural history. However, accumulating knowledge regarding the roles of CCM 1, 2, and 3 genes has led to the discovery of potential therapeutic targets. The risk of future hemorrhage in patients with CM is highest in those who have had previously clinical hemorrhages. Estimated risks are helpful in counseling patients and comparing to the risk of surgery. Future clinical trials of candidate medications are likely to target those patients with prior clinical hemorrhage in whom the surgical risk is deemed high.

Endoscopic management of a cavernous malformation on the floor of third ventricle and aqueduct of Sylvius: Technical case report and review of the literature

Background:

Intraventricular cavernous malformations are unusual intracranial vascular malformations; their deep anatomical location complicates their surgical management. Microsurgical approaches are the gold standard approaches for the resection of ventricular lesions, however, they imply considerable neurovascular risks.

Case Description:

A 51-year-old patient presented with acute headache, diplopia, vertigo, blurred vision, and a depressed level of consciousness. A ventricular hemorrhage was treated with a ventriculostomy and the patient was discharged without hydrocephalus. After 11 days, he developed ataxia, diplopia, and a depressed level of consciousness. The patient was diagnosed with hydrocephalus secondary to the previous third ventricle hemorrhage. An endoscopic exploration using a 30° rigid ventricular endoscope was performed; after the third ventriculostomy, an intraventricular cavernous malformation located on the floor of the third ventricle and the aqueduct of Sylvius was resected.

Conclusions:

Three days after the surgery, magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated a gross total resection and adequate third ventriculostomy flow. One year after the surgery, the patient was asymptomatic. Neuroendoscopy has evolved towards minimally invasiveness, and in selected cases is an equally effective surgical approach to ventricular lesions. It provides minimal cerebral cortex disruption and vascular manipulation.

Surgical Treatment of Cavernous Malformations Involving the Midbrain: A Single-Center Case Series of 34 Patients

BACKGROUND

Cavernous malformations (CMs) involving the midbrain are more challenging for surgical treatment than are CMs at other sites because of the surrounding critical structures and deep location. However, specific features and treatment strategies have not been well illustrated.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the long-term durability of surgical treatment of midbrain CMs (MBCMs) as well as surgical outcomes and complications.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted in 34 patients who underwent microsurgical resection of MBCMs between 1995 and 2015. Demographics, lesion characteristics, surgical approaches, surgical outcomes, and complications were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 34 adult patients with a mean age of 38.6 years were assessed. All patients presented with a history of hemorrhage. Lesion locations included the midbrain (n = 27), midbrain and thalamus (n = 2), and pontomesencephalic junction (n = 5). Mean lesion size was 1.7 cm; average clinical follow-up was 5.6 years. Mean modified Rankin Scale (mRS) scores on admission, at discharge, and at last follow-up were 2.0, 2.7, and 1.7, respectively. Postoperatively, 19 patients (55.9%) showed new or worsened neurologic deficits. Multivariate analysis showed that admission mRS score (≥3) was an independent predictor of poor functional outcome (odds ratio, 50.832; 95% confidence interval, 2.967-901.283; P = 0.007). No rehemorrhage or recurrence case was found during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

Although surgery for MBCMs is associated with significant perioperative morbidity and mortality, most patients show favorable outcomes. Higher preoperative mRS score is an independent predictor of poor functional outcome.