Nootropic and anxiolytic activity of saponins of Albizzia lebbeck leaves

Potential effect of luteolin, epiafzelechin, and albigenin on rats under cadmium-induced inflammatory insult: In silico and in vivo approach

Introduction: Cadmium(Cd) an industrial poison present abundantly in the environment, causes human toxicity by an inflammatory process. Chronic exposure of cadmium can cause a number of molecular lesions that could be relevant to oncogenesis, through indirect or epigenetic mechanisms, potentially including abnormal activation of oncogenes and suppression of apoptosis by depletion of antioxidants. As induction of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 is linked to inflammatory processes, use of luteolin, epiafzelechin, and albigenin alone or in different combinations may be used as anti-inflammatory therapeutic agents. Methods: We, herein, performed in silico experiments to check the binding affinity of phytochemicals and their therapeutic effect against COX-2 in cadmium administered rats. Wistar albino rats were given phytochemicals in different combinations to check their anti-inflammatory activities against cadmium intoxication. The level of alanine aminotransferases (ALT), 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE), 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), isoprostanes (IsoP-2α), COX-2, and malondialdehyde (MDA) were estimated with their respective ELISA and spectrophotometric methods. Results: The generated results show that phytocompounds possessed good binding energy potential against COX-2, and common interactive behavior was observed in all docking studies. Moreover, the level of ALT, 4HNE, 8-OHdG, TNF-α, IsoP-2α, malondialdehyde, and COX-2 were significantly increased in rats with induced toxicity compared to the control group, whereas in combinational therapy of phytocompounds, the levels were significantly decreased in the group. Discussion: Taken together, luteolin, epiafzelechin, and albigenin can be used as anti-inflammatory therapeutic agents for future novel drug design, and thus it may have therapeutic importance against cadmium toxicity.

The Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, Pathological, and Behavioural Effects of Medicago sativa L. (Alfalfa) Extract on Brain Injury Caused by Nicotine in Male Rats

Nicotine is one of the most important compounds in cigarette which can cause changes in the concentration of neurotransmitters and damage to the nervous system. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the hydroalcoholic extract of Medicago Sativa L. (alfalfa) on controlling nicotine-induced brain damage and anxiety behaviour in rats. Forty-two male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six equal groups and treated daily as follows: a control group, T1 and T2 groups where animals were subcutaneously injected 250 and 500 mg/kg alfalfa extract, respectively, T3 and T4 groups where animals were injected subcutaneously 0.2 mg/kg nicotine and 250 and 500 mg/kg alfalfa extract, and T5 group in which only nicotine at the dose of 0.2 mg/kg was injected. At the end of the period after weighing, the elevated plus-maze test was taken from the animals. Serum assay was conducted to measure TCA, IL-1, and TNFα, and half of the brain tissue was used to measure oxidative stress parameters (GPx, SOD, TAC, and MDA) and the other parts were used for histopathological studies. Body weight in the T5 group was significantly different from that of the other groups. The time and number of open arms reduced in the T5 group. The duration and number of times in the open arm significantly decreased in the treated groups in a dose-depended manner. Malondialdehyde concentration was the highest in the nicotine group and the lowest in T2. The concentration of GPx and SOD was significantly increased in the presence of alfalfa extract in nicotine groups. TNFα and IL-1 in the T5 group showed a significant increase compared to the other groups. Moreover, the number of neurons and the level of necrotic neurons and gliosis significantly decreased and increased in the nicotine group, respectively, while these histopathological damages improved by treatment with alfalfa extract in T3 and T4 groups. Alfalfa extract can have a significant dose-dependent therapeutic effect on inducing oxidative damage and inflammatory responses of nicotine in the brain and reducing anxiety behaviours.

Ameliorative effect of methanol stem extract of Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel) bullock on scopolamine-induced sub-chronic cognitive deficit in mice

Background Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel) Bullock is a commonly used medicinal plant in African traditional medicine. The powdered roots and stems of the plant are taken with pap as a memory enhancer among the Yorubas of southwestern Nigeria. The mechanism by which scopolamine induces cognitive deficit mimics the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration in cognitive impairment. This study therefore, aimed at investigating the effect of the methanol stem extract of P. nigrescens on sub-chronically scopolamine-induced cognitive deficit in mice. Method Phytochemical screening was carried out on the extract using standard protocols. The oral median lethal dose (LD50) was estimated according to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 425 limit test guideline. Doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg of the extract were used for the study. The elevated plus maze (EPM) and novel object recognition tests (NORT) were used to assess cognitive function. The brain tissue was assayed for the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Results The plant extract contains phenolics, carbohydrates, tannins, saponins, and unsaturated sterols.The extract decreased the transfer latencies on days 7 and 8 against the scopolamine group in EPM and increased the discrimination index decreased by scopolamine in NORT. The methanol stem extract of P. nigrescens significantly (p ≤ 0.01) reduced MDA level;  significantly  (p ≤ 0.01) increased SOD activity;  non-significantly increased GSH activity and the activity of AChE apeared not altered. Conclusion The methanol stem extract of P. nigrescens ameliorated sub-chronically scopolamine-induced cognitive deficit via antioxidant mechanism.

Systems pharmacology based approach to investigate the in-vivo therapeutic efficacy of Albizia lebbeck (L.) in experimental model of Parkinson's disease

Background

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta and clinically manifested mainly with motor dysfunctions. Plants are rich source of medicinally important bioactive compounds and inhabitants of underdeveloped countries used plants for treatment of various ailments. Albizia lebbeck has been reported to possess antioxidant and neuroprotective properties that suggest the evaluation of its traditional therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative diseases.

The aim of present study was to validate the traditional use of Albizia lebbeck (L.) and delineate its mechanism of action in PD. The systems pharmacology approach was employed to explain the Albizia lebbeck (L.) mechanism of action in PD.

Methods

The haloperidol-induced catalepsy was adopted as experimental model of PD for in-vivo studies in wistar albino rats. The systems pharmacology approach was employed to explain the Albizia lebbeck (L.) mechanism of action in PD.

Results

In-vivo studies revealed that Albizia lebbeck improved the motor functions and endurance as demonstrated in behavioral studies which were further supported by the rescue of endogenous antioxidant defense and reversal of ultrastructural damages in histological studies. System pharmacology approach identified 25 drug like compounds interacting with 132 targets in a bipartite graph that revealed the synergistic mechanism of action at system level. Kaemferol, phytosterol and okanin were found to be the important compounds nodes with prominent target nodes of TDP1 and MAPT.

Conclusion

The therapeutic efficiency of Albizia lebbeck in PD was effectively delineated in our experimental and systems pharmacology approach. Moreover, this approach further facilitates the drug discovery from Albizia lebbeck for PD.

An Updated List of Neuromedicinal Plants of Pakistan, Their Uses, and Phytochemistry

BACKGROUND

Almost every region of Pakistan is stacked with a large number of medicinal plants. Due to high cost and unavailability of allopathic medicines for the neurological diseases, especially in rural areas, traditional healers prescribe phytotherapy for various neurological diseases like epilepsy, depression, anxiety, insomnia, Alzheimer, and migraine. Such treatments are considered to be most effective by the native people.

METHODS

The data was collected from articles published on medicinal plants of various districts of Pakistan, using article search engines like Medline, Pubmed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Also, information regarding various neurological uses and mode of applications of medicinal plants was obtained from traditional healers, folk medicine users, and local elderly people having knowledge of medicinal plants.

RESULTS

A total of 54 families were found to be used in various neurological diseases, of which the highest use was of Solanaceae (22.22%), Asteraceae (12.96%), Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae, and Poaceae, 9% each, and Caprifoliaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Rhamnaceae, and Rosaceae, 5.5% each. According to districts, 15% of plants that were effective in neurological affections were found in Bahawalpur, 11% in Swat, 8% in Muzaffarabad, 7% in Malakand, and 6% in Bahawalnagar, Dir, Gilgat, and Sarghoda each, with 5% in Dera ghazi khan and Jhelum each. According to the plant's habit, out of total of 103 plants, 61.15% were found to be herbs, 22.33% trees, 11.65% shrubs, and 4.85% climbers. According to the part used of plant, whole plant, leaves, fruits, roots, seeds, and flowers were found to be used 32.03%, 24.27%, 20.38%, 16.50%, 13.59%, and 11.65%, respectively. According to disease's types, 45.63% were found to be effective in insomnia, 31.06% in epilepsy 12.62% in depression, 6.80% in anxiety, 7.77% in hysteria, and 5.88% in migraine.

CONCLUSION

Taking into consideration this useful knowledge on medicinal properties of the plants for curing neurologic diseases, it is believed that research in areas of ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology can bring auspicious results that have potential of adding value to the very rich natural resources of Pakistan. This study will help all the researchers from diverse backgrounds working on plants based medicine for neurological diseases.

Effect of Nelumbo nucifera fruit on scopolamine induced memory deficits and motor coordination

From prehistoric time till today herbal medications are supposed to have neuroprotective effects both by inhibiting acetyl cholinesterase enzyme or antioxidant ability and are also affordable. Thus extensive studies are necessary to investigate the pharmacological effects of herbal plants. The goal of the present study was to ascertain the outcome of Nelumbo nucifera fruit (NNF) on scopolamine induced amnestic rats along with motor coordination in mice in order to explore its pharmacological use in disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD). The effect of NNF on learning and memory was assessed by Morris water maze test using 35 Wister rats weighing 200-230 g evenly divided in to five groups. While motor coordination was assessed using Rot rod test, 35 male locally bred albino mice weighing 20-25 g were equally divided in to five groups. Group I was kept as control (10 ml/kg gum tragacanth). Group II, III and IV were labeled as treated groups (NNF 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg). Group V served as reference group (piracetam 200 mg/kg). All drugs were given by oral route as a single dose for 15 days in both experiments to rats and mice, however scopolamine (1 mg/kg IP) was used in Morris water maze test 40 min after the administration of drugs to rats for the induction of amnesia. In Morris water maze test, N. nucifera fruit caused highly significant and significant decrease in escape latency in the amnestic rats at 200 and 100 mg/kg as compared to control. In Rota rod test, N. nucifera fruit did not exhibit any notable changes in the riding time at any dose as compared to control. N. nucifera fruit have demonstrated ameliorating effects on memory without affecting muscle coordination. Hence NNF seems to have great potential for therapeutic application in memory disorders, such as AD which may be due to its ability to enhance cholinergic neurotransmission and exerting antioxidant effect and thus encourage more preclinical and clinical trials in this field.

Quantification of Quercetin Obtained from Allium cepa Lam. Leaves and its Effects on Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Neuropathy

Objective:

Antioxidant potential has protective effects in diabetic neuropathy (DN); hence, the present study was designed with an objective to quantify quercetin from shade-dried leaves of Allium cepa Lam. and to study its effects on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced chronic DN.

Materials and Methods:

The shade-dried leaves of A. cepa Lam. were extracted with methanol and then fractionated using ethyl acetate (ACEA). The quantification of quercetin in ACEA was evaluated by high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). The STZ (40 mg/kg) was administered to Sprague-Dawley rats (180–250 g) maintained at normal housing conditions. The STZ was administered once a day for 3 consecutive days. The elevation in blood glucose was monitored for 3 weeks periodically using flavin adenine dinucleotide-glucose dehydrogenase method by Contour TS glucometer. Rats showing blood glucose above 250 mg/dl were selected for the study. Animals were divided into eight groups. ACEA (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg), quercetin (40 mg/kg), metformin (120 mg/kg), and gabapentin (100 mg/kg) were given orally once a day for 2 weeks. The blood glucose level was again measured at the end of treatment to assess DN. Thermal hyperalgesia, cold allodynia, motor incoordination, and neurotoxicity were studied initially and at the end of 2-week treatment. Biochemical parameters were also evaluated after 2-week drug treatment.

Results:

The quercetin present in ACEA was 4.82% by HPTLC. All the ACEA treatment reduces blood glucose level at the end of the 2-week study and shows a significant neuroprotective effect in STZ-induced DN in the above experimental models.

Conclusion:

The quercetin present in ACEA proved protective effect in STZ-induced DN.

SUMMARY

High-performance thin layer chromatography reveals the presence of 4.82% quercetin in Allium cepa ethyl acetate. (ACEA). Its investigation against various diabetic neuropathy biomarkers has proved that ACEA has significant blood glucose reducing action shown neuroprotective action in thermal hyperalgesia, motor incoordination, and biochemical parameters.

Abbreviations Used: HPTLC: High-performance thin layer chromatography, TLC: Thin layer chromatography, UV: Ultraviolet, ACEA: Allium cepa ethyl acetate, STZ: Streptozotocin, LDL: Low-density lipids, HDL: High-density lipids.

Pharmacological evidence of neuro-pharmacological activity of Acacia tortilis leaves in mice

Acacia tortilis is abundantly present in Saudi Arabia but its neuro-pharmacological activity has not yet been evaluated. In this study, the antidepressant by Forced swim test, Anxiolytic (Light and Dark box) and sedative effects (by using Open Field) of Acacia leaves extract were evaluated in mice. Aqueous extracts of the Acacia tortilis leaves were prepared. Two different doses (400 and 800 mg/kg) of the extracts were administered to the mice orally (p.o.). In exploratory behavior, Acacia leave extract (800 mg/kg) produced a significant reduction (Veh, 91.00 ± 5.26; Acacia 800 mg/kg, 46.33 ± 3.24 p < 0.05) similar to the effect observed with chlorpromazine (CPZ) (Veh, 91.00 ± 5.26; CPZ 1.0 mg/kg, 24.20 ± 3.40 p < 0.05). A dose-dependent significant decrease in immobility time was also observed in mice and this effect was comparable to its positive control (Imipramine). However, In light-dark box test, mice treated with high dose (800 mg/kg/day) spent significant (p < 0.05) time on the light side of the light-dark box similar to positive control DZP. (Veh, 114.40 ± 6.30 s; Acacia 800 mg/kg, 162.2 ± 14.9; DZP 1.0 mg/kg, 184.20 ± 9.24 p < 0.05). The present research propounded that Acacia tortilis leave extract contains some active ingredients with potential anxiolytic activity at low doses and antidepressant and sedative activity at high doses.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the leaves of Albizzia lebbeck in rats

Albizzia lebbeck Benth. (Mimosaceae) is a medicinal tree used to treat several inflammatory ailments in the Indian traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the possible anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous (AE) and ethanolic (EE) extracts of the leaves of A. lebbeck to support the ethnopharmacological claims. The study was carried out using Wistar rats (100-150 g). The AE and EE were prepared using the Soxhlet extraction process. The anti-inflammatory activity of the AE and EE of the leaves of A. lebbeck were studied using carrageenan-induced paw edema and cotton pellet-induced granuloma models. The AE and EE of the leaves of A. lebbeck at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg p.o. (oral administration) showed a dose-dependent and significant (p < 0.05) inhibition of carrageenan-induced hind paw edema with maximum percentage inhibition (PI) values of 22.34, 30.85, 39.36 and 22.53, 32.98, 42.55, respectively. The AE and EE at doses of 50, 100, 200 mg/kg p.o. significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited granuloma formation with PI values of 19.07, 27.57, 38.55 and 23.93, 32.23, 42.33, respectively. The AE and EE of the leaves of A. lebbeck showed significant (p < 0.05) anti-inflammatory activity.

Triterpenoid saponins from Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth and their inhibitory effect on the survival of high grade human brain tumor cells

As part of our search of new bioactive triterpenoid saponins from Cameroonian Mimosaceae plants, phytochemical investigation of the roots of Albizia lebbeck led to the isolation of two new oleanane-type saponins, named lebbeckosides A-B (1-2). Their structures were established on the basis of extensive 1D and 2D NMR ((1)H, (13)C NMR, DEPT, COSY, TOCSY, ROESY, HSQC, and HMBC) and HRESIMS studies, and by chemical evidence. Compounds 1-2 were evaluated for their inhibitory effect on the metabolism of high grade human brain tumor cells, the human glioblastoma U-87 MG cell lines and the glioblastoma stem-like TG1 cells isolated from a patient tumor, and known to be particularly resistant to standard therapies. The isolated saponins showed significant cytotoxic activity against U-87 MG and TG1 cancer cells with IC50 values of 3.46 μM and 1.36 μM for 1, and 2.10 μM and 2.24 μM for 2, respectively.

Evaluation of anxiolytic effect of Medicago sativa in mice

CONTEXT

Medicago sativa Linn. (Leguminosae) has a long tradition of use as an Ayurvedic and Homoeopathic medicine in a variety of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Traditionally, M. sativa is used to improve the memory, as a rejuvenator, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and in CNS disorders. Despite a long tradition of use, no systematic phytochemical and pharmacological work has been carried out on this potential plant. M. sativa was subjected to preliminary anti-anxiety screening studies, with a view to ascertain the verity of its traditional use as an anxiolytic.

OBJECTIVE

Various extracts, viz., petroleum ether, chloroform, methanol and aqueous extract from the aerial parts of M. sativa was subjected to preliminary anti-anxiety screening studies, with a view to ascertain the truth on evidence of its traditional use as an anxiolytic.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The aerial parts of the plant were extracted using solvents in order of increasing polarity, viz., petroleum ether (60-80 °C), chloroform, methanol and distilled water. All the crude extracts were evaluated for anti-anxiety activity in mice using elevated plus-maze apparatus. Diazepam was used as the standard drug.

RESULTS

Among all extracts, only the methanol extract exhibited significant (p < 0.05) anti-anxiety activity by increasing the average time spent, and number of entries in open arms at a dose of 100 mg/kg in mice with respect to the vehicle treated control as well as the standard (2 mg/kg).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that administration of M. sativa exerts anxiolytic effect on mice, and it could serve as a new approach for the treatment of anxiety.

Nootropic, anxiolytic and CNS-depressant studies on different plant sources of shankhpushpi

CONTEXT

Shankhpushpi, a well-known drug in Ayurveda, is extensively used for different central nervous system (CNS) effects especially memory enhancement. Different plants are used under the name shankhpushpi in different regions of India, leading to an uncertainty regarding its true source. Plants commonly used under the name shankhpushpi are: Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois., Evolvulus alsinoides Linn., both from Convolvulaceae, and Clitoria ternatea Linn. (Leguminosae).

OBJECTIVE

To find out the true source of shankhpushpi by evaluating and comparing memory-enhancing activity of the three above mentioned plants. Anxiolytic, antidepressant and CNS-depressant activities of these three plants were also compared and evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The nootropic activity of the aqueous methanol extract of each plant was tested using elevated plus-maze (EPM) and step-down models. Anxiolytic, antidepressant and CNS-depressant studies were evaluated using EPM, Porsolt?s swim despair and actophotometer models, respectively.

RESULTS

C. pluricaulis extract (CPE) at a dose of 100 mg/kg, p.o. showed maximum nootropic and anxiolytic activity (p < 0.001). E. alsinoides extract (EAE) and C. ternatea extract (CTE) showed maximum memory-enhancing and anxiolytic activity (p < 0.001) at 200 and 100?mg/kg, respectively. Amongst the three plants, EAE and CTE showed significant (p < 0.05), while CPE did not exhibit any antidepressant activity. All the three plants showed CNS-depressant action at higher dose levels.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The above results showed all the three plants possess nootropic, anxiolytic and CNS-depressant activity. The results of memory-enhancing activity suggest C. pluricaulis to be used as true source of shankhpushpi.

Anxiolytic-like effects of sanjoinine A isolated from Zizyphi Spinosi Semen: possible involvement of GABAergic transmission

This experiment was performed to investigate the anxiolytic-like effects of sanjoinine A, one of the major alkaloid compounds in Zizyphi Spinosi Semen (ZSS), by using experimental paradigms of anxiety in comparison with a known anxiolytic, diazepam. Sanjoinine A (2.0 mg/kg) increased the percentage of time spent on the open arms and the number of open arms entries in the elevated plus-maze test, increased the number of head dips in the hole-board test, and increased the percentage of time spent in the center zone and the center zone locomotor distance in the open field box experiment. However, sanjoinine A (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg) had no effect on locomotor activity, while diazepam (2.0 mg/kg) significantly reduced locomotor activity. Sanjoinine A (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg) did not influence the grip force in the grip strength meter test either. Molecular experiments showed that sanjoinine A (2.0, 5.0 microM) increased chloride influx in cultured cerebellar granule cells. In addition, sanjoinine A (5.0 microM) treatment resulted in over-expression of alpha- and gamma-subunits of GABA(A) receptors and glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65/67) in cultured cerebellar granule cells. It is concluded that sanjoinine A may have anxiolytic-like effects in the elevated plus-maze, hole-board test and open field test, and these effects may be mediated by GABAergic transmission.

Triterpenoidal Saponins and Prosapogenins from Albizia Lebbeck (Leguminosae)

Four new echinocystic acid glycosides (1–4) were isolated from the dried seeds of Albizia lebbeck. The alkaline hydrolysate of the saponin fraction yielded two new prosapogenins (5–6). Their structures were determined by extensive NMR and spectroscopic analysis.

Antispermatogenic, antiandrogenic activities of Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth bark extract in male albino rats

Methanolic extract of Albizia lebbeck bark when administered orally at the dose level of 100 mg/rat/day to male rats of proven fertility for 60 days did not cause any significant loss in their body weights but the weights of reproductive organs, i.e. testis, epididymides, seminal vesicle and ventral prostate were decreased in a significant manner when compared to controls. Sperm motility as well as sperm density were reduced significantly which resulted in reduction of male fertility by 100%. Marked decline in the germ cell population was noticed. Population of preleptotene, pachytene, secondary spermatocytes and step-19 spermatid were declined by 60.86%, 65.81%, 71.56% and 66.55%, respectively. Cross-sectional surface area of sertoli cells as well as the cells counts were found to be depleted significantly. Leydig cells nuclear area and number of mature Leydig cells were decreased by 60.03% and 51.56%, respectively. Serum testosterone levels showed significant reduction after A. lebbeck extract feeding. Oral administration of the extract did not affect red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) count, haemoglobin, haematocrit and glucose in the blood and cholesterol, protein, triglyceride and phospholipid in the serum. In conclusion, A. lebbeck bark extract administration arrests spermatogenesis in male rats without noticeable side effects.

Anxiolytic-like effects of ginsenosides on the elevated plus-maze model in mice

In a previous study, we reported that ginseng extract has anxiolytic-like effects in the elevated plus-maze model and that the ginseng saponin fraction plays an important role. This experiment was performed to investigate the anxiolytic-like effects of ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, Rg3-R, and Rg3-S, and the Rg5 and Rk mixture isolated from the ginseng saponin fraction in the elevated plus-maze. Furthermore, the anxiolytic-effects of Rb1, Rg1, Rg3-R, Rg3-S, and the Rg5 and Rk mixture were compared with those of a well-known active anxiolytic drug (diazepam). The oral administration of ginsenoside Rb1 significantly increased the number of open arm entries and the time spent on the open arm compared with those in the vehicle-treated group. Ginsenoside Rg1 and the Rg5 and Rk mixture also significantly increased the number of open arm entries and the time spent on the open arm. However, ginsenosides Rg3-R and Rg3-S did not increase the number of open arm entries or the time spent on the open arm. On the other hand, ginsenoside Rb1 and the Rg5 and Rk mixture decreased locomotor activity in a manner similar to diazepam. These data indicate that ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and the Rg5 and Rk mixture have anxiolytic-like effects, but ginsenosides Rg3-R and Rg3-S do not in this model. We provide evidence that some ginsenosides may be useful for the treatment of anxiety.

Anxiolytic-like effects of ginseng in the elevated plus-maze model: comparison of red ginseng and sun ginseng

This study was performed to investigate the anxiolytic-like effects of red ginseng (RG, steamed raw ginseng at 98-100 degrees C) and sun ginseng (SG, heat-processed ginseng at higher temperature) in mice using the elevated plus-maze model. Furthermore, the anxiolytic-like effects of RG and SG were compared to a known active anxiolytic drug (diazepam). The RG butanol fraction (100 mg/kg) significantly increased the number of open arms entries and the time spent on the open arm (indicators of anxiolytic-like effects) compared with that of the saline group. However, lower doses of the SG total extract (50 mg/kg) and the SG butanol fraction (25 and 50 mg/kg) significantly increased the number of open arms entries and the time spent on the open arms. The RG total extract (100 mg/kg) and the SG total extract at a lower dose (25 mg/kg) did not increase the number of open arm entries or the time spent on the open arm. On the other hand, the RG butanol fraction (100 mg/kg), the SG total extract (50 mg/kg), and the SG butanol fraction (50 mg/kg) decreased locomotor activity in a manner similar to diazepam. These data indicate that ginseng has anxiolytic-like effects, and the anxiolytic potential of SG is stronger than that of RG in the elevated plus-maze model. Ginseng saponins have been suggested to play an important role in the anxiolytic effects of ginseng. We provide evidence that ginseng may be useful for the treatment of anxiety.

Biological activities and distribution of plant saponins

Plant saponins are widely distributed amongst plants and have a wide range of biological properties. The more recent investigations and findings into their biological activities were summarized. Isolation studies of saponins were examined to determine which are the more commonly studied plant families and in which families saponins have been identified.