Light Microscopy of Echinoderm Embryos

Live imaging of echinoderm embryos to illuminate evo-devo

Echinoderm embryos have been model systems for cell and developmental biology for over 150 years, in good part because of their optical clarity. Discoveries that shaped our understanding of fertilization, cell division and cell differentiation were only possible because of the transparency of sea urchin eggs and embryos, which allowed direct observations of intracellular structures. More recently, live imaging of sea urchin embryos, coupled with fluorescence microscopy, has proven pivotal to uncovering mechanisms of epithelial to mesenchymal transition, cell migration and gastrulation. However, live imaging has mainly been performed on sea urchin embryos, while echinoderms include numerous experimentally tractable species that present interesting variation in key aspects of morphogenesis, including differences in embryo compaction and mechanisms of blastula formation. The study of such variation would allow us not only to understand how tissues are formed in echinoderms, but also to identify which changes in cell shape, cell-matrix and cell-cell contact formation are more likely to result in evolution of new embryonic shapes. Here we argue that adapting live imaging techniques to more echinoderm species will be fundamental to exploit such an evolutionary approach to the study of morphogenesis, as it will allow measuring differences in dynamic cellular behaviors - such as changes in cell shape and cell adhesion - between species. We briefly review existing methods for live imaging of echinoderm embryos and describe in detail how we adapted those methods to allow long-term live imaging of several species, namely the sea urchin Lytechinus pictus and the sea stars Patiria miniata and Patiriella regularis. We outline procedures to successfully label, mount and image early embryos for 10-16 h, from cleavage stages to early blastula. We show that data obtained with these methods allows 3D segmentation and tracking of individual cells over time, the first step to analyze how cell shape and cell contact differ among species. The methods presented here can be easily adopted by most cell and developmental biology laboratories and adapted to successfully image early embryos of additional species, therefore broadening our understanding of the evolution of morphogenesis.

From apolar gastrula to polarized larva: Embryonic development of a marine hydroid, Dynamena pumila

BACKGROUND

In almost all metazoans examined to this respect, the axial patterning system based on canonical Wnt (cWnt) signaling operates throughout the course of development. In most metazoans, gastrulation is polar, and embryos develop morphological landmarks of axial polarity, such as blastopore under control/regulation from cWnt signaling. However, in many cnidarian species, gastrulation is morphologically apolar. The question remains whether сWnt signaling providing the establishment of a body axis controls morphogenetic processes involved in apolar gastrulation.

RESULTS

In this study, we focused on the embryonic development of Dynamena pumila, a cnidarian species with apolar gastrulation. We thoroughly described cell behavior, proliferation, and ultrastructure and examined axial patterning in the embryos of this species. We revealed that the first signs of morphological polarity appear only after the end of gastrulation, while molecular prepatterning of the embryo does exist during gastrulation. We have shown experimentally that in D. pumila, the direction of the oral-aboral axis is highly robust against perturbations in cWnt activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that morphogenetic processes are uncoupled from molecular axial patterning during gastrulation in D. pumila. Investigation of D. pumila might significantly expand our understanding of the ways in which morphological polarization and axial molecular patterning are linked in Metazoa.

An easy and rapid staining method for confocal microscopic observation and reconstruction of three-dimensional images of echinoderm larvae and juveniles

The morphologies of the internal organs of echinoderm larvae and juveniles are difficult to study using conventional optical microscopes because of their structural complexity and opaqueness. This paper describes an easy and rapid protocol involving Nile blue staining followed by benzyl alcohol/benzyl benzoate (BABB) clearing to overcome this limitation. This method was developed for a three-dimensional (3D) analysis of the internal structures of advanced larvae and juveniles of echinoderms (the sea lily Metacrinus rotundus, the sea urchin Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus, and the sand dollar Scaphechinus mirabilis) and is suitable for obtaining serial optical images by confocal microscopy without the use of specific antibodies or special reagents for labeling. Nile blue is an easy-to-use stain that offers several advantages for confocal microscopy such as it can stain various tissues with strong fluorescent signals without substantial bleaching during observation. We found that the strong fluorescence signal of Nile blue quickly yielded clear high-resolution optical section images for 3D reconstruction. BABB clearing rendered opaque larvae highly transparent. The clearing procedure was also easy and quick. During the process, agarose embedding prior to staining and clearing was found to be critical for handling the samples of less than 500-μm length and stabilizing their orientations. To conclude, the protocol described is useful for performing a rapid and accurate 3D morphological analysis of echinoderm larvae and juveniles.

The Wnt/PCP formin Daam1 drives cell-cell adhesion during nephron development

E-cadherin junctions facilitate assembly and disassembly of cell contacts that drive development and homeostasis of epithelial tissues. In this study, using Xenopus embryonic kidney and Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells, we investigate the role of the Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) formin Daam1 (Dishevelled-associated activator of morphogenesis 1) in regulating E-cadherin-based intercellular adhesion. Using live imaging, we show that Daam1 localizes to newly formed cell contacts in the developing nephron. Furthermore, analyses of junctional filamentous actin (F-actin) upon Daam1 depletion indicate decreased microfilament localization and slowed turnover. We also show that Daam1 is necessary for efficient and timely localization of junctional E-cadherin, mediated by Daam1’s formin homology domain 2 (FH2). Finally, we establish that Daam1 signaling promotes organized movement of renal cells. This study demonstrates that Daam1 formin junctional activity is critical for epithelial tissue organization.

How cells remodel their adhesions through cell-surface proteins such as E-cadherin is a central question in epithelial tissue biology. Krneta-Stankic et al. show that the Wnt/PCP formin Daam1 regulates cytoskeletal membrane dynamics and E-cadherin localization within developing nephrons. These findings provide a new framework for studying cell-cell adhesion and nephron morphogenesis.

A Peak of H3T3 Phosphorylation Occurs in Synchrony with Mitosis in Sea Urchin Early Embryos

The sea urchin embryo provides a valuable system to analyse the molecular mechanisms orchestrating cell cycle progression and mitosis in a developmental context. However, although it is known that the regulation of histone activity by post-translational modification plays an important role during cell division, the dynamics and the impact of these modifications have not been characterised in detail in a developing embryo. Using different immuno-detection techniques, we show that the levels of Histone 3 phosphorylation at Threonine 3 oscillate in synchrony with mitosis in Sphaerechinus granularis early embryos. We present, in addition, the results of a pharmacological study aimed at analysing the role of this key histone post-translational modification during sea urchin early development.

Actin assembly ruptures the nuclear envelope by prying the lamina away from nuclear pores and nuclear membranes in starfish oocytes

The nucleus of oocytes (germinal vesicle) is unusually large and its nuclear envelope (NE) is densely packed with nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) that are stockpiled for embryonic development. We showed that breakdown of this specialized NE is mediated by an Arp2/3-nucleated F-actin ‘shell’ in starfish oocytes, in contrast to microtubule-driven tearing in mammalian fibroblasts. Here, we address the mechanism of F-actin-driven NE rupture by correlated live-cell, super-resolution and electron microscopy. We show that actin is nucleated within the lamina, sprouting filopodia-like spikes towards the nuclear membranes. These F-actin spikes protrude pore-free nuclear membranes, whereas the adjoining stretches of membrane accumulate NPCs that are associated with the still-intact lamina. Packed NPCs sort into a distinct membrane network, while breaks appear in ER-like, pore-free regions. We reveal a new function for actin-mediated membrane shaping in nuclear rupture that is likely to have implications in other contexts, such as nuclear rupture observed in cancer cells.

Resveratrol increases resistance of mouse oocytes to postovulatory aging in vivo

After ovulation, metaphase II oocytes undergo a time-dependent deterioration in vivo or in vitro, which is referred to as postovulatory oocyte aging, a process during which a series of deleterious molecular and cellular changes occur. In this study, we found that short-term injection of resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene) effectively ameliorated oxidative stress-induced damage in postovulatory oocyte aging of middle-aged mice in vivo. Resveratrol induced changes that delayed the aging-induced oocyte deterioration including the elevated expression of the anti-aging molecule Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1); it reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, and improved mitochondria function. In addition, these beneficial changes may also help to prevent apoptosis. Taken together, our data suggest that resveratrol can effectively protect against postovulatory oocyte aging in vivo primarily by preventing ROS production.

SGK regulates pH increase and cyclin B-Cdk1 activation to resume meiosis in starfish ovarian oocytes

Tight regulation of intracellular pH (pH_i) is essential for biological processes. Fully grown oocytes, having a large nucleus called the germinal vesicle, arrest at meiotic prophase I. Upon hormonal stimulus, oocytes resume meiosis to become fertilizable. At this time, the pH_i increases via Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger activity, although the regulation and function of this change remain obscure. Here, we show that in starfish oocytes, serum- and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase (SGK) is activated via PI3K/TORC2/PDK1 signaling after hormonal stimulus and that SGK is required for this pH_i increase and cyclin B-Cdk1 activation. When we clamped the pH_i at 6.7, corresponding to the pH_i of unstimulated ovarian oocytes, hormonal stimulation induced cyclin B-Cdk1 activation; thereafter, oocytes failed in actin-dependent chromosome transport and spindle assembly after germinal vesicle breakdown. Thus, this SGK-dependent pH_i increase is likely a prerequisite for these events in ovarian oocytes. We propose a model that SGK drives meiotic resumption via concomitant regulation of the pH_i and cell cycle machinery.

Study of a Miniaturizable System for Optical Sensing Application to Human Cells

Conventional approaches to human intracellular optical sensing, generally, require dedicated laboratories with bulky detection systems. They are performed by cell labeling procedures based on the use of fluorophores that are, mostly, phototoxic, invasive, bleached in case of prolonged light exposures, which require carriers and/or structural modifications for the cellular uptake. These issues, together with the sensitivity of the eukaryotic cell model, could be problematic towards the development of a robust sensing system suitable for biomedical screening. In this work, we studied a sensing system resulting from the combination of the commercial tris(2,2’bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) fluorophore, for cell labeling, with a potentially miniaturizable optical system composed by a laser source and a photomultiplier tube, for the fluorescence analysis.

Visualizing egg and embryonic polarity

During development metazoan embryos have to establish the molecular coordinates for elaboration of the embryonic body plan. Typically, bilaterian (bilaterally symmetric animals) embryos establish anterior-posterior (AP) and dorsal-ventral (DV) axes, and in most cases the AP axis is established first. For over a century it has been known that formation of the AP axis is strongly influenced by the primary axis of the egg, the animal-vegetal (AV) axis. The molecular basis for how the AV axis influences AP polarity remains poorly understood, but sea urchins have proven to be important for elucidating the molecular basis for this process. In fact, it is the first model system where a critical role for Wnt signaling in specification and patterning the AV and AP axis was first established. One current area of research is focused on identifying the maternal factors that regulate localized activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling at the vegetal pole during development. An essential tool for this work is the means to identify the AV polarity in oocytes and eggs. This permits investigation into how polarity is established and allows development of experimental strategies to identify maternal factors that contribute to and control axial polarity. This chapter provides protocols to accomplish this in sea urchin eggs and early embryos. We describe simple methods to visualize polarity including direct observation of eggs and oocytes, using a microscope for overt morphological signs of polarity, and more extensive methods involving localization of known factors indicative of inherent embryonic polarity, such as the upstream regulators of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

Live-cell fluorescence imaging of echinoderm embryos

The rapid development, simplicity and optical clarity of the sea urchin embryo make it an excellent model system for studying the dynamic events of early development. An ever-growing palette of fluorescent proteins and biosensors can now be applied to studying sea urchin development, and there are now a wide variety of imaging modes that can be employed to image sea urchin embryogenesis. However, when performing live-cell imaging, one must take into consideration the sensitivity of embryos (and fluorescent probes) to the intense light associated with confocal microscopes. Here, we discuss general considerations for keeping embryos viable on the microscope stage, as well as probes for imaging cellular membranes and the cytoskeleton. We compare the relative merits of different confocal microscopes for live imaging of embryos and describe the potential for live-cell super-resolution microscopy.

Culturing echinoderm larvae through metamorphosis

Echinoderms are favored study organisms not only in cell and developmental biology, but also physiology, larval biology, benthic ecology, population biology and paleontology, among other fields. However, many echinoderm embryology labs are not well-equipped to continue to rear the post-embryonic stages that result. This is unfortunate, as such labs are thus unable to address many intriguing biological phenomena, related to their own cell and developmental biology studies, that emerge during larval and juvenile stages. To facilitate broader studies of post-embryonic echinoderms, we provide here our collective experience rearing these organisms, with suggestions to try and pitfalls to avoid. Furthermore, we present information on rearing larvae from small laboratory to large aquaculture scales. Finally, we review taxon-specific approaches to larval rearing through metamorphosis in each of the four most commonly-studied echinoderm classes-asteroids, echinoids, holothuroids and ophiuroids.

F-Actin nucleated on chromosomes coordinates their capture by microtubules in oocyte meiosis

Capture of each and every chromosome by spindle microtubules is essential to prevent chromosome loss and aneuploidy. In somatic cells, astral microtubules search and capture chromosomes forming lateral attachments to kinetochores. However, this mechanism alone is insufficient in large oocytes. We have previously shown that a contractile F-actin network is additionally required to collect chromosomes scattered in the 70-µm starfish oocyte nucleus. How this F-actin-driven mechanism is coordinated with microtubule capture remained unknown. Here, we show that after nuclear envelope breakdown Arp2/3-nucleated F-actin "patches" form around chromosomes in a Ran-GTP-dependent manner, and we propose that these structures sterically block kinetochore-microtubule attachments. Once F-actin-driven chromosome transport is complete, coordinated disassembly of F-actin patches allows synchronous capture by microtubules. Our observations indicate that this coordination is necessary because early capture of chromosomes by microtubules would interfere with F-actin-driven transport leading to chromosome loss and formation of aneuploid eggs.

Sister kinetochore splitting and precocious disintegration of bivalents could explain the maternal age effect

Aneuploidy in human eggs is the leading cause of pregnancy loss and Down’s syndrome. Aneuploid eggs result from chromosome segregation errors when an egg develops from a progenitor cell, called an oocyte. The mechanisms that lead to an increase in aneuploidy with advanced maternal age are largely unclear. Here, we show that many sister kinetochores in human oocytes are separated and do not behave as a single functional unit during the first meiotic division. Having separated sister kinetochores allowed bivalents to rotate by 90 degrees on the spindle and increased the risk of merotelic kinetochore-microtubule attachments. Advanced maternal age led to an increase in sister kinetochore separation, rotated bivalents and merotelic attachments. Chromosome arm cohesion was weakened, and the fraction of bivalents that precociously dissociated into univalents was increased. Together, our data reveal multiple age-related changes in chromosome architecture that could explain why oocyte aneuploidy increases with advanced maternal age.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11389.001

Older women are more likely to experience a miscarriage or give birth to a child who has a developmental disorder. This occurs because age increases the chances that a woman’s egg cells will have the wrong number of chromosomes. If a sperm fertilizes an egg with too many or too few copies of a chromosome, the resulting embryo will have the wrong number of copies for many genes. Many of these embryos fail to develop and die, but some are born with developmental conditions like Down's syndrome and Turner syndrome.

New egg cells develop from immature egg cells that are present in a woman from birth. In an immature egg cell, chromosomes that came from the woman’s father are paired up with the matching chromosomes from the woman’s mother and the handle-like structures on each chromosome (called the kinetochores) are fused. Just before the immature egg cell divides, a molecular machine called ‘the spindle’ attaches to the chromosome handles. The spindle then separates these pairs of chromosomes such that each new cell receives only one copy of each chromosome. However, while it is known that this process sometimes goes wrong, it is not clear why mistakes happen more often in older women.

Now, Zielinska et al. used powerful microscopes to observe cell division in over 200 preserved or living immature egg cells donated by women between the ages of 23 and 46. First, the experiments examined over 1,000 chromosomes in preserved immature egg cells that were about to divide. This revealed that the chromosome handles that were supposed to be fused had often disconnected in women over 35 years old. Chromosome pairs without correctly fused handles were also prone to rotating during the division process, and sometimes the pairs simply fell apart too soon.

Further experiments with living immature egg cells then revealed that the spindle struggled to grip and separate the chromosomes correctly, possibly because the chromosome handles were not properly fused. These events increased the likelihood of a new egg cell receiving too many or too few chromosomes. Finally, Zielinska et al. found that immature egg cells lack a robust control mechanism that can detect when these problems occur.

Together these findings help to explain why miscarriages and chromosome abnormalities are more common in the children of older women. Research building on these findings may in the future help women in their late 30s and early 40s to increase their chances of having a family.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11389.002

Localization of germ plasm-related structures during sea urchin oogenesis

BACKGROUND

Animal germ cells have specific organelles that are similar to ribonucleoprotein complex, called germ plasm, which is accumulated in eggs. Germ plasm is essential for inherited mechanism of germ line segregation in early embryogenesis. Sea urchins have early germ line segregation in early embryogenesis. Nevertheless, organization of germ plasm-related organelles and their molecular composition are still unclear. Another issue is whether maternally accumulated germ plasm exists in the sea urchin eggs.

RESULTS

I analyzed intracellular localization of germ plasm during oogenesis in sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius by using morphological approach and immunocytochemical detection of Vasa, a germ plasm marker. All ovarian germ cells have germ plasm-related organelles in the form of germ granules, Balbiani bodies, and perinuclear nuage found previously in germ cells in other animals. Maternal germ plasm is accumulated in late oogenesis at the cell periphery. Cytoskeletal drug treatment showed an association of Vasa-positive granules with actin filaments in the egg cortex.

CONCLUSIONS

All female germ cells of sea urchins have germ plasm-related organelles. Eggs have a maternally accumulated germ plasm associated with cortical cytoskeleton. These findings correlate with early segregation of germ line in sea urchins.

Human oocytes. Error-prone chromosome-mediated spindle assembly favors chromosome segregation defects in human oocytes

Aneuploidy in human eggs is the leading cause of pregnancy loss and several genetic disorders such as Down syndrome. Most aneuploidy results from chromosome segregation errors during the meiotic divisions of an oocyte, the egg's progenitor cell. The basis for particularly error-prone chromosome segregation in human oocytes is not known. We analyzed meiosis in more than 100 live human oocytes and identified an error-prone chromosome-mediated spindle assembly mechanism as a major contributor to chromosome segregation defects. Human oocytes assembled a meiotic spindle independently of either centrosomes or other microtubule organizing centers. Instead, spindle assembly was mediated by chromosomes and the small guanosine triphosphatase Ran in a process requiring ~16 hours. This unusually long spindle assembly period was marked by intrinsic spindle instability and abnormal kinetochore-microtubule attachments, which favor chromosome segregation errors and provide a possible explanation for high rates of aneuploidy in human eggs.

A three-step MTOC fragmentation mechanism facilitates bipolar spindle assembly in mouse oocytes

Assembly of a bipolar microtubule spindle is essential for accurate chromosome segregation. In somatic cells, spindle bipolarity is determined by the presence of exactly two centrosomes. Remarkably, mammalian oocytes do not contain canonical centrosomes. This study reveals that mouse oocytes assemble a bipolar spindle by fragmenting multiple acentriolar microtubule-organizing centres (MTOCs) into a high number of small MTOCs to be able to then regroup and merge them into two equal spindle poles. We show that MTOCs are fragmented in a three-step process. First, PLK1 triggers a decondensation of the MTOC structure. Second, BicD2-anchored dynein stretches the MTOCs into fragmented ribbons along the nuclear envelope. Third, KIF11 further fragments the MTOCs following nuclear envelope breakdown so that they can be evenly distributed towards the two spindle poles. Failure to fragment MTOCs leads to defects in spindle assembly, which delay chromosome individualization and congression, putting the oocyte at risk of aneuploidy.

Mitotic spindles assemble from two centrosomes, but oocytes lack centrosomes so how their spindles assemble is unclear. Here Clift and Schuh show that multiple acentriolar microtubule-organizing centres fragment in a three-step process to facilitate bipolar spindle assembly in mouse oocytes.

Nuclear roles for actin

Actin's presence in the nucleus is a subject that has ignited a lot of controversy in the past. With our review, we attempt to reach out not only to the specialists but also to a broader audience that might be skeptical in light of the controversies. We take a rather conservative approach to build an argument that recent studies provide multiple independent lines of evidence substantiating actin's diverse nuclear functions, especially in its monomeric state. We then particularly focus on how the concentration of monomeric actin, and potentially of specific polymerized forms of actin, can be used by the cell as indicators of cellular state and how this information can be transduced into the nucleus by transcriptional regulators, eliciting a response. We also provide examples that in specific cell types and specific physiological conditions, actin is functional in the nucleus in its polymeric form. However, we also discuss that in many instances, the presence of actin regulators in the nucleus, which is often seen as proof of their function within this compartment, may simply reflect an additional means of their regulation by compartmentalization.

Expession patterns of mesenchyme specification genes in two distantly related echinoids, Glyptocidaris crenularis and Echinocardium cordatum

The molecular mechanism of the larval mesenchyme cell specification in echinoids has been well analyzed. However, most of the data have been provided by studies of a single group of echinoids, the order Camarodonta. Little is known about this mechanism in other echinoid orders. We examined the expression patterns of mesenchyme specification genes, micro1, hesC, alx1, tbr, ets1, cyp1, and gcm, in the two non-Camarodonta echinoids, Glyptocidaris crenularis and Echinocardium cordatum. We found that the expression patterns of some genes contained characteristics that were unique to one of the species; others were shared by the two species. Some of the shared characteristics of G. crenularis and E. cordatum are not found in the species belonging to Camarodonta, suggesting the derived status of this order. The expression of ets1 in E. cordatum aboral ectoderm is one of the molecular level modifications possibly related to an evolutionarily novel larval structure, the posterior process. Our results suggest that a considerable number of modifications in the mesenchyme specification mechanisms have been introduced during the echinoid evolution.

Larval mesenchyme cell specification in the primitive echinoid occurs independently of the double-negative gate

Echinoids (sea urchins) are divided into two major groups - cidaroids (a 'primitive' group) and euechinoids (a 'derived' group). The cidaroids are a promising model species for understanding the ancestral developmental mechanisms in echinoids, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms of cidaroid development. In euechinoids, skeletogenic mesenchyme cell specification is regulated by the double-negative gate (DNG), in which hesC represses the transcription of the downstream mesenchyme specification genes (alx1, tbr and ets1), thereby defining the prospective mesenchyme region. To estimate the ancestral mechanism of larval mesenchyme cell specification in echinoids, the expression patterns and roles of mesenchyme specification genes in the cidaroid Prionocidaris baculosa were examined. The present study reveals that the expression pattern and function of hesC in P. baculosa were inconsistent with the DNG model, suggesting that the euechinoid-type DNG is not utilized during cidaroid mesenchyme specification. In contrast with hesC, the expression patterns and functions of alx1, tbr and ets1 were similar between P. baculosa and euechinoids. Based on these results, we propose that the roles of alx1, tbr and ets1 in mesenchyme specification were established in the common ancestor of echinoids, and that the DNG system was acquired in the euechinoid lineage after divergence from the cidaroid ancestor. The evolutionary timing of the establishment of the DNG suggests that the DNG was originally related to micromere and/or primary mesenchyme cell formation but not to skeletogenic cell differentiation.

An invertebrate embryologist's guide to routine processing of confocal images

It is almost impossible to use a confocal microscope without encountering the need to transform the raw data through image processing. Adherence to a set of straightforward guidelines will help ensure that image manipulations are both credible and repeatable. Meanwhile, attention to optimal data collection parameters will greatly simplify image processing, not only for convenience but for quality and credibility as well. Here I describe how to conduct routine confocal image processing tasks, including creating 3D animations or stereo images, false coloring or merging channels, background suppression, and compressing movie files for display.

Imaging neural development in embryonic and larval sea urchins

Imaging is a critical tool in neuroscience, and our understanding of the structure and function of sea urchin nervous systems owes much to this approach. In particular, studies of neural development have been facilitated by methods that enable the accurate identification of specific types of neurons. Here we describe methods that have been successfully employed to study neural development in sea urchin embryos. Altering gene expression in part of an embryo is facilitated by injection of reagents into individual blastomeres, which enables studies of cell autonomous effects and single embryo rescue experiments. The simultaneous localization of an in situ RNA hybridization probe and a cell type specific antigen has enabled studies of gene expression in specific types of neurons. Fixatives and antibodies can be capricious; thus, we provide data on preservation of antigens with commonly used fixatives and buffers.

Preparation of developing Xenopus muscle for sarcomeric protein localization by high-resolution imaging

Mutations in several sarcomeric proteins have been linked to various human myopathies. Therefore, having an in vivo developmental model available that develops quickly and efficiently is key for investigators to elucidate the critical steps, components and signaling pathways involved in building a myofibril; this is the pivotal foundation for deciphering disease mechanisms as well as the development of myopathy-related therapeutics. Although striated muscle cell culture studies have been extremely informative in providing clues to both the distribution and functions of sarcomeric proteins, myocytes in vivo develop in an irreproducible 3D environment. Xenopus laevis (frog) embryos are cost effective, compliant to protein level manipulations and develop relatively quickly (⩽ a week) in a petri dish, thus providing a powerful system for de novo myofibrillogenesis studies. Although fluorophore-conjugated phalloidin labeling is the gold standard approach for investigating actin-thin filament architecture, it is well documented that phalloidin-labeling can be challenging and inconsistent within Xenopus embryos. Therefore we highlight several techniques that can be utilized to preserve both antibody and fluorophore-conjugated phalloidin labeling within Xenopus embryos for high-resolution fluorescence microscopy.

Mouse granzyme A induces a novel death with writhing morphology that is mechanistically distinct from granzyme B-induced apoptosis

Human and mouse granzyme (Gzm)B both induce target cell apoptosis in concert with pore-forming perforin (Pfp); however the mechanisms by which other Gzms induce non-apoptotic death remain controversial and poorly characterised. We used timelapse microscopy to document, quantitatively and in real time, the death of target cells exposed to primary natural killer (NK) cells from mice deficient in key Gzms. We found that in the vast majority of cases, NK cells from wild-type mice induced classic apoptosis. However, NK cells from syngeneic Gzm B-deficient mice induced a novel form of cell death characterised by slower kinetics and a pronounced, writhing, 'worm-like' morphology. Dying cells initially contracted but did not undergo membrane blebbing, and annexin-V staining was delayed until the onset of secondary necrosis. As it is different from any cell death process previously reported, we tentatively termed this cell death 'athetosis'. Two independent lines of evidence showed this alternate form of death was due to Gzm A: first, cell death was revealed in the absence of Gzm B, but was completely lost when the NK cells were deficient in both Gzm A and B; second, the athetotic morphology was precisely reproduced when recombinant mouse Gzm A was delivered by an otherwise innocuous dose of recombinant Pfp. Gzm A-mediated athetosis did not require caspase activation, early mitochondrial disruption or generation of reactive oxygen species, but did require an intact actin cytoskeleton and was abolished by latrunculin B and mycalolide B. This work defines an authentic role for mouse Gzm A in granule-induced cell death by cytotoxic lymphocytes.

Notch and Nodal control forkhead factor expression in the specification of multipotent progenitors in sea urchin

Indirect development, in which embryogenesis gives rise to a larval form, requires that some cells retain developmental potency until they contribute to the different tissues in the adult, including the germ line, in a later, post-embryonic phase. In sea urchins, the coelomic pouches are the major contributor to the adult, but how coelomic pouch cells (CPCs) are specified during embryogenesis is unknown. Here we identify the key signaling inputs into the CPC specification network and show that the forkhead factor foxY is the first transcription factor specifically expressed in CPC progenitors. Through dissection of its cis-regulatory apparatus we determine that the foxY expression pattern is the result of two signaling inputs: first, Delta/Notch signaling activates foxY in CPC progenitors; second, Nodal signaling restricts its expression to the left side, where the adult rudiment will form, through direct repression by the Nodal target pitx2. A third signal, Hedgehog, is required for coelomic pouch morphogenesis and institution of laterality, but does not directly affect foxY transcription. Knockdown of foxY results in a failure to form coelomic pouches and disrupts the expression of virtually all transcription factors known to be expressed in this cell type. Our experiments place foxY at the top of the regulatory hierarchy underlying the specification of a cell type that maintains developmental potency.

Growth, interaction, and positioning of microtubule asters in extremely large vertebrate embryo cells

Ray Rappaport spent many years studying microtubule asters, and how they induce cleavage furrows. Here, we review recent progress on aster structure and dynamics in zygotes and early blastomeres of Xenopus laevis and Zebrafish, where cells are extremely large. Mitotic and interphase asters differ markedly in size, and only interphase asters span the cell. Growth of interphase asters occurs by a mechanism that allows microtubule density at the aster periphery to remain approximately constant as radius increases. We discuss models for aster growth, and favor a branching nucleation process. Neighboring asters that grow into each other interact to block further growth at the shared boundary. We compare the morphology of interaction zones formed between pairs of asters that grow out from the poles of the same mitotic spindle (sister asters) and between pairs not related by mitosis (non-sister asters) that meet following polyspermic fertilization. We argue growing asters recognize each other by interaction between antiparallel microtubules at the mutual boundary, and discuss models for molecular organization of interaction zones. Finally, we discuss models for how asters, and the centrosomes within them, are positioned by dynein-mediated pulling forces so as to generate stereotyped cleavage patterns. Studying these problems in extremely large cells is starting to reveal how general principles of cell organization scale with cell size.

An actin-dependent mechanism for long-range vesicle transport

Intracellular transport is vital for the function, survival and architecture of every eukaryotic cell. Long-range transport in animal cells is thought to depend exclusively on microtubule tracks. This study reveals an unexpected actin-dependent but microtubule-independent mechanism for long-range transport of vesicles. Vesicles organize their own actin tracks by recruiting the actin nucleation factors Spire1, Spire2 and Formin-2, which assemble an extensive actin network from the vesicles' surfaces. The network connects the vesicles with one another and with the plasma membrane. Vesicles move directionally along these connections in a myosin-Vb-dependent manner to converge and to reach the cell surface. The overall outward-directed movement of the vesicle-actin network is driven by recruitment of vesicles to the plasma membrane in the periphery of the oocyte. Being organized in a dynamic vesicle-actin network allows vesicles to move in a local random manner and a global directed manner at the same time: they can reach any position in the cytoplasm, but also move directionally to the cell surface as a collective. Thus, collective movement within a network is a powerful and flexible mode of vesicle transport.

Spire-type actin nucleators cooperate with Formin-2 to drive asymmetric oocyte division

Oocytes mature into eggs by extruding half of their chromosomes in a small cell termed the polar body. Asymmetric oocyte division is essential for fertility [1], but despite its importance, little is known about its mechanism. In mammals, the meiotic spindle initially forms close to the center of the oocyte. Thus, two steps are required for asymmetric meiotic division: first, asymmetric spindle positioning and second, polar body extrusion. Here, we identify Spire1 and Spire2 as new key factors in asymmetric division of mouse oocytes. Spire proteins are novel types of actin nucleators that drive nucleation of actin filaments with their four WH2 actin-binding domains [2-6]. We show that Spire1 and Spire2 first mediate asymmetric spindle positioning by assembling an actin network that serves as a substrate for spindle movement. Second, they drive polar body extrusion by promoting assembly of the cleavage furrow. Our data suggest that Spire1 and Spire2 cooperate with Formin-2 (Fmn2) to nucleate actin filaments in mouse oocytes and that both types of nucleators act as a functional unit. This study not only reveals how Spire1 and Spire2 drive two critical steps of asymmetric oocyte division, but it also uncovers the first physiological function of Spire-type actin nucleators in vertebrates.

Influence of cell geometry on division-plane positioning

The spatial organization of cells depends on their ability to sense their own shape and size. Here, we investigate how cell shape affects the positioning of the nucleus, spindle and subsequent cell division plane. To manipulate geometrical parameters in a systematic manner, we place individual sea urchin eggs into microfabricated chambers of defined geometry (e.g., triangles, rectangles, and ellipses). In each shape, the nucleus is positioned at the center of mass and is stretched by microtubules along an axis maintained through mitosis and predictive of the future division plane. We develop a simple computational model that posits that microtubules sense cell geometry by probing cellular space and orient the nucleus by exerting pulling forces that scale to microtubule length. This model quantitatively predicts division-axis orientation probability for a wide variety of cell shapes, even in multicellular contexts, and estimates scaling exponents for length-dependent microtubule forces.

A new model for asymmetric spindle positioning in mouse oocytes

An oocyte matures into an egg by extruding half of the chromosomes in a small polar body. This extremely asymmetric division enables the oocyte to retain sufficient storage material for the development of the embryo after fertilization. To divide asymmetrically, mammalian oocytes relocate the spindle from their center to the cortex. In all mammalian species analyzed so far, including human, mouse, cow, pig, and hamster, spindle relocation depends on filamentous actin (F-actin). However, even though spindle relocation is essential for fertility, the involved F-actin structures and the mechanism by which they relocate the spindle are unknown. Here we show in live mouse oocytes that spindle relocation requires a continuously reorganizing cytoplasmic actin network nucleated by Formin-2 (Fmn2). We found that the spindle poles were enriched in activated myosin and pulled on this network. Inhibition of myosin activation by myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) stopped pulling and spindle relocation, indicating that myosin pulling creates the force that drives spindle movement. Based on these results, we propose the first mechanistic model for asymmetric spindle positioning in mammalian oocytes and validate five of its key predictions experimentally.

Self-organization of MTOCs replaces centrosome function during acentrosomal spindle assembly in live mouse oocytes

Chromosome segregation in mammalian oocytes is driven by a microtubule spindle lacking centrosomes. Here, we analyze centrosome-independent spindle assembly by quantitative high-resolution confocal imaging in live maturing mouse oocytes. We show that spindle assembly proceeds by the self-organization of over 80 microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) that form de novo from a cytoplasmic microtubule network in prophase and that functionally replace centrosomes. Initially distributed throughout the ooplasm, MTOCs congress at the center of the oocyte, where they contribute to a massive, Ran-dependent increase of the number of microtubules after nuclear envelope breakdown and to the individualization of clustered chromosomes. Through progressive MTOC clustering and activation of kinesin-5, the multipolar MTOC aggregate self-organizes into a bipolar intermediate, which then elongates and thereby establishes chromosome biorientation. Finally, a stable barrel-shaped acentrosomal metaphase spindle with oscillating chromosomes and astral-like microtubules forms that surprisingly exhibits key properties of a centrosomal spindle.

A contractile nuclear actin network drives chromosome congression in oocytes

Chromosome capture by microtubules is widely accepted as the universal mechanism of spindle assembly in dividing cells. However, the observed length of spindle microtubules and computer simulations of spindle assembly predict that chromosome capture is efficient in small cells, but may fail in cells with large nuclear volumes such as animal oocytes. Here we investigate chromosome congression during the first meiotic division in starfish oocytes. We show that microtubules are not sufficient for capturing chromosomes. Instead, chromosome congression requires actin polymerization. After nuclear envelope breakdown, we observe the formation of a filamentous actin mesh in the nuclear region, and find that contraction of this network delivers chromosomes to the microtubule spindle. We show that this mechanism is essential for preventing chromosome loss and aneuploidy of the egg--a leading cause of pregnancy loss and birth defects in humans.

Induction of cytokinesis is independent of precisely regulated microtubule dynamics

Astral microtubules (MTs) emanating from the mitotic apparatus (MA) during anaphase are required for stimulation of cytokinesis in eggs. We have used green fluorescent protein-labeled EB1 to observe MT dynamics during mitosis and cytokinesis in normal sea urchin eggs. Analysis of astral MT growth rates during anaphase shows that MTs contact the polar cortex earlier than the equatorial cortex after anaphase onset but that a normal cleavage furrow is not induced until contact with MTs has been achieved throughout the cortex. To assess the role of MT dynamics in initiation of cytokinesis, we used a collection of small molecule drugs to affect dynamics. Hexylene glycol resulted in rapid astral elongation due to decreased MT catastrophe and precocious furrowing. Taxol suppressed MT dynamics but did not inhibit furrow induction when the MA was manipulated toward the cortex. Urethane resulted in short, highly dynamic astral MTs with increased catastrophe that also stimulated furrowing upon being brought into proximity to the cortex. Our findings indicate that astral MT contact with the cortex is necessary for furrow initiation but that the dynamic state of astral MTs does not affect their competency to stimulate furrowing.